Unmeasured reinforcement is the best option for low-rise construction! Pipes Metallurgical enterprises of Russia.
Virtually no industry can operate without pipes. Along with cement or sand, pipes are an invariable attribute of any construction site. They are used in medicine, in the manufacture of furniture, in aircraft, ship, automobile and carriage construction. Pipes are indispensable when transporting liquid or gaseous substances. Pipes are used in each of these areas various parameters, including lengths.
Types of pipes
Pipes are divided into three large groups: seamless, welded and profile. Let's talk about distinctive features each of them.
Seamless pipes
They are distinguished by the integrity of their structure. For this reason, pipes can withstand high loads. Seamless pipes, in turn, are divided into two types: cold-rolled and hot-rolled.
Cold rolled. They can have an outer diameter, wall thickness and length of 5–250 mm, 0.3–24 mm and 1.5–11.5 m, respectively. They are characterized by high surface finish and precise geometric parameters. Cold-rolled pipes are used in aviation, astronautics, medicine, and in the manufacture of engines. internal combustion, fuel equipment, nuclear and steam boilers power plants, furniture.
Hot rolled. They can have an outer diameter, wall thickness and length of 28–530 mm, 2.5–75 mm and 4–12.5 m. They are characterized by a rough surface and low accuracy. They are more rigid compared to cold-rolled counterparts. Hot-rolled pipes are used in the chemical and mining industries, in the manufacture of boiler plants and installation of domestic water supply systems.
Electric welded pipes
A distinctive feature of pipes of this type is the presence in the structure weld. They are divided into: straight- and spiral-seam.
Long-seam pipes can have an outer diameter, wall thickness and length of 10–1420 mm, 1–32 mm and 2–12 m, respectively. Most often they are used when installing pipelines with moderate pressure.
Spiral welded pipes They are produced with an outer diameter, wall thickness and length of 159–2520 mm, 3.5–25 mm and 10–12 m. They are used for the construction of heating mains and water pipelines. Used for use under high pressure– no more than 210 atmospheres.
Profile pipes
Profile pipes can be seamless or electric-welded and have a cross-section in the form of a square, rectangle or oval. External dimensions square pipes from 10 to 180 mm, wall thickness – 1–14 mm and length – 1.5–12.5 m. Products with a rectangular cross-section are produced in sizes from 10×15 to 150×180 mm, wall thickness from 1 to 12 mm and length from 1.5 to 12.5 m. Both types of pipes are used for the construction building structures: frames, columns, racks, trusses, stairs and ceilings. Products with an oval cross-section are more used for decorative purposes: making railings, fireplace grates, household and office furniture. They can have dimensions from 3x6 to 22x72 mm, wall thickness from 0.5 to 2.5 mm and length from 1.5 to 12.5 m.
Pipe length
The standards for all of the listed types of pipes indicate three options for their manufacture:
- Measured length - the entire pipe is the same size.
- The length is a multiple of the measured length - each pipe can be cut into a certain amount parts of the required size: an allowance of 5 mm is given for each cut.
- Unmeasured length - pipes different lengths, but within the specified range or not less than the specified value.
For each of the parameters, the standards indicate an upper and lower limit. Manufacturers adhere to these requirements during production.
Sometimes the formulations “measured length with remainder” or “length multiple of measured with remainder” are found. This means that some pipes are longer than required. Manufacturers always stipulate what part of the products (as a percentage) of the total shipped batch will have such deviations.
The video shows how the pipe cutting operation is performed:
Conclusion
Length is one of the key parameters of pipes. Knowing the differences between measured, unmeasured and multiple measured quantities will allow you to formulate your order more accurately and avoid unnecessary costs.
One of the types of products of the metal rolling industry is pipes of a wide range. Modern construction Russia cannot do without the use of this unique material. Steel products They have high strength characteristics, they are durable and reliable.
The most significant use of steel pipes is the construction of transportation systems: oil, water and gas. In addition to the actual pipeline work, metal pipes are used to insulate communications.
Purchase metal pipes should only be based on data on the temperature and humidity conditions under which it will be operated.
As for the cross-sectional shape, the most common one is round. When fulfilling your order, we work with specific parameters and can produce rolled pipes with the required diameter. We are also ready to supply pipes of square, rectangular and other sections. It all depends on the specific production needs.
Steel pipes are made from various steel grades: 10, 20, 35, 45, 09G2S, 10G2, 20Х, 40Х, 30ХГСА, 20Х2Н4А, etc.
Steel pipes are divided by type into:
- Electric-welded steel pipes - Non-galvanized and galvanized welded steel pipes used for water pipelines, gas pipelines, heating systems and structural parts.
- Seamless steel pipes - Steel pipes that do not have a weld or other connection. They are made by rolling, forging, pressing or drawing.
Steel pipes are divided by class into:
- Water-gas pipes (WGP): GOST 3262 and Galvanized water-gas pipes - GOST 3262
- Electric-welded pipes: GOST 10705, 10704 and Galvanized electric-welded pipes GOST 10705, 10704
- Pipes large diameter: Main pipes GOST 20295 and Electrical pipes GOST 10706
- Seamless pipes: Hot-deformed GOST 8731, 8732 and Cold-deformed GOST 8731, 8734
STEEL WATER AND GAS PIPES
The length of the pipe is made from 4 to 12 m:
a) measured or multiple measured length with an allowance for each cut of 5 mm and a longitudinal deviation over the entire length plus 10 mm;
b) of unmeasured length.
By agreement between the manufacturer and the consumer, up to 5% of pipes with a length of 1.5 to 4 m are allowed in a batch of unmeasured pipes.
The length of the pipe is made from 4 to 12 m
Dimensions, mm
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Conditional bore, mm |
O.D, mm |
Pipe wall thickness |
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ordinary |
reinforced |
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According to the length of the pipe they are made: unmeasured length: with a diameter of up to 30 mm - at least 2 m; with a diameter of St. 30 to 70 mm - at least 3 m; with a diameter of St. 70 to 152 mm - at least 4 m; with a diameter of three St. 152 mm - not less than 5 m. measured length:
Pipes are made of three types: 1 - straight-seam welded with a diameter of 159-426 mm, manufactured resistance welding high frequency currents; 2 - spiral welded with a diameter of 159-820 mm, made by electric arc welding; 3 - straight-seam with a diameter of 530-820 mm, made by electric arc welding. Depending on mechanical properties pipes are manufactured in strength classes: K 34, K 38, K 42, K 50, K 52, K 55, K 60. Pipes are manufactured in lengths from 10.6 to 11.6 m. Dimensions, mm
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Date of introduction 01.01.93
1. This installation standard includes a range of steel electric-welded straight-seam pipes. 2. The dimensions of the pipes must correspond to the table. 1. 3. According to the length of the pipe, they are made: of unmeasured length: with a diameter of up to 30 mm - no less than 2 m; diameter s. 30 to 70 mm - at least 3 m; with a diameter of St. 70 to 152 mm - at least 4 m; with a diameter of St. 152 mm - at least 5 m. At the request of the consumer, pipes of groups A and B according to GOST 10705 with a diameter above 152 mm are manufactured with a length of at least 10 m; pipes of all groups with a diameter of up to 70 mm - a length of at least 4 m; measured length: for diameter up to 70 mm - from 5 to 9 m; with a diameter of St. 70 to 219 mm - from 6 to 9 m; with a diameter of St. 219 to 426 mm - from 10 to 12 m. Pipes with a diameter of over 426 mm are manufactured only in unmeasured lengths. By agreement between the manufacturer and the consumer, pipes with a diameter of over 70 to 219 mm can be manufactured from 6 to 12 m; a multiple length of at least 250 mm and not exceeding the lower limit established for measuring pipes. The allowance for each cut is set to 5 mm (unless another allowance is specified) and is included in each multiplicity.
Table 1
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Outer diameter, mm |
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Continuation of the table. 1
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Outer diameter, mm |
Theoretical weight of 1 m of pipes, kg, with wall thickness, mm |
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Continuation of the table. 1
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Outer diameter, mm |
Theoretical weight of 1 m of pipes, kg, with wall thickness, mm |
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Continuation of the table. 1
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Outer diameter, mm |
Theoretical weight of 1 m of pipes, kg, with wall thickness, mm |
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Continuation of the table. 1
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Outer diameter, mm |
Theoretical weight of 1 m of pipes, kg, with wall thickness, mm |
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Continuation of the table. 1
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Outer diameter, mm |
Theoretical weight of 1 m of pipes, kg, with wall thickness, mm |
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Continuation of the table. 1
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Outer diameter, mm |
Theoretical weight of 1 m of pipes, kg, with wall thickness, mm |
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Continuation of the table. 1
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Outer diameter, mm |
Theoretical weight of 1 m of pipes, kg, with wall thickness, mm |
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Table 2
3.3. Maximum deviations in the total length of multiple pipes should not exceed: + 15 mm - for pipes of class I accuracy; + 100 mm - for pipes of class II accuracy. 3.4. At the request of the consumer, spruce pipes of measured and multiple lengths of class II accuracy must have pointed ends on one or both sides. 4. Limit deviations for the outer diameter of the pipe are given in table. 3.Table 3
Note. For diameters controlled by perimeter measurements, the largest and smallest limit values of the perimeters are rounded to the nearest 1 mm. 5. At the request of the consumer, pipes in accordance with GOST 10705 are manufactured with a one-sided or offset tolerance on the outer diameter. One-sided or shifted tolerance should not exceed the sum of the maximum deviations given in table. 3. 6. Maximum deviations in wall thickness must correspond to: ± 10% - for pipe diameters up to 152 mm; GOST 19903 - for pipe diameters over 152 mm for the maximum sheet width of normal accuracy. By agreement between the consumer and the manufacturer, it is allowed to manufacture pipes with a one-sided tolerance for wall thickness, and the one-sided tolerance should not exceed the sum of the maximum deviations for wall thickness. 7. For pipes with a diameter of over 76 mm, a thickening of the wall at the burr by 0.15 mm is allowed. 8. Pipes for pipelines with a diameter of 478 mm and more, manufactured in accordance with GOST 10706, are supplied with maximum deviations in the outer diameter of the ends given in table. 4.Table 4
9. Ovality and equidistance of pipes with a diameter of up to 530 mm inclusive, manufactured in accordance with GOST 10705, should be no more than the maximum deviations for the outer diameter and wall thickness, respectively. Pipes with a diameter of 478 mm or more, manufactured in accordance with GOST 10706, must be of three classes exactly in terms of ovality. The ovality of the ends of the pipes should not exceed: 1% of the outer diameter of the pipes for the 1st accuracy class; 1.5% of the outer diameter of pipes for 2nd accuracy class; 2% of the outer diameter of pipes for 3rd accuracy class. The ovality of the ends of pipes with a wall thickness of less than 0.0 1 outer diameter is established by agreement between the manufacturer and the consumer. 10. The curvature of pipes manufactured according to GOST 10705 should not exceed 1.5 mm per 1 m of length. At the consumer's request, the curve of pipes with a diameter of up to 152 mm should be no more than 1 mm per 1 m of length. The total curvature of pipes manufactured according to GOST 10706 should not exceed 0.2% of the pipe length. The wear curve per 1 m length of such pipes is not determined. 11. Technical requirements must comply with GOST 10705 and GOST 10706. Examples of symbols: Pipe with an outer diameter of 76 mm, a wall thickness of 3 mm, measured length, class II accuracy and length, made of steel grade St3sp, manufactured according to group B GOST 10705-80:
The same, with increased accuracy in outer diameter, length multiple of 2000 mm, 1st accuracy class in length, made of steel and grade 20, manufactured according to group B of GOST 10705-80:
Pipe with an outer diameter of 25 mm, a wall thickness of 2 mm, a length multiple of 2000 mm, class II accuracy in length, manufactured according to group D GOST 10705-80;
Pipe with an outer diameter of 1020 mm, increased manufacturing accuracy, wall thickness 12 mm, increased accuracy in the outer diameter of the ends, 2nd class of accuracy in ovality, unmeasured length, from steel grade and St3sp, manufactured according to group e B of GOST 10706 -76 Note. In the symbols of pipes that have undergone heat treatment throughout the entire volume, the letter T is added after the words “pipe”; pipes that have undergone local heat treatment of the weld, the letter L is added.
INFORMATION DATA
1. DEVELOPED AND INTRODUCED by the Ministry of Metallurgy of the USSR DEVELOPERS V. P. Sokurenko, Ph.D. tech. sciences; V. M. Vorona, Ph.D. tech. Sciences; P. N. Ivshin, Ph.D. tech. Sciences; N. F. Kuzenko, V. F. Ganzina 2. APPROVED AND ENTERED INTO EFFECT by the Decree of the Committee of Standardization and Metrology of the USSR dated November 15, 1991 No. 1743 3. INSTEAD GOST 10704-76 4. REFERENCE REGULATIVE AND TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS 5. REPUBLICATION. December 1996
Employees for less than a year, regardless of their value, as well as items costing up to 100 times the minimum monthly wage per unit, regardless of their length of service, and in budgetary organizations - up to 50 times its size).
Moreover, this entry is made at actual cost, and collection is made at retail prices, and sometimes at several multiples. The difference between the cost of materials at recovery prices and their actual cost is taken into account in a special off-balance sheet account. As the amounts are collected, the difference is credited to the state budget.
Considering the established opinion that the main distorting influence on the dynamics of production volume indicators is the different material consumption of products, it could be assumed that the highest deviations of private efficiency indicators by type of product from the general level of efficiency for the enterprise as a whole will be observed for all indicators of efficiency in the use of materials, and especially in terms of indicators calculated on the basis of the volume of products sold. In fact, in almost all the analyzed plants, the deviation of private efficiency indicators from the general level for the plant as a whole in terms of the use of materials turned out to be, as a rule, less than in terms of the efficiency of using fixed production assets and even labor. The difference in return (efficiency) is 1000 rubles. costs of materials in production different types production rarely reaches 2-3 times, and in terms of costs for production assets 4-6 times.
At machine-building plants there are special procurement workshops where materials are cut. If there are no such shops or their organization is impractical, then a cutting department is allocated in the processing shops. When cutting materials great value have correct application multiples, dimensional and standard sizes materials, maximum reduction in the amount of returnable and non-returnable waste, possible use of waste by producing more small parts, preventing the consumption of full-sized materials for cutting blanks that can be made from incomplete materials, eliminating defects during cutting.
An increase in K.r.m., and therefore a reduction in material waste, is facilitated by ordering measured and multiple sizes. When cutting parts and products various sizes and complex configuration in order to increase K, r.m. EMM and computer technology are used.
The most important requirements that must be followed when drawing up the Z.-s. and checking their correctness are the following: a) strict compliance of the ordered quantity of products for the expanded assortment with allocated supply funds and concluded supply contracts for each item of the group nomenclature b) full compliance of the ordered assortment with current standards, technical. conditions, catalogs, as well as concluded supply agreements, while it is important to expand the use of the most progressive varieties of products, materials of measured and multiple sizes, etc. c) compliance with established order standards and correct accounting of transit supply standards d) uniform distribution of ordered products by deadline deliveries with regular consumption or ensuring timely delivery with the necessary advance in relation to the terms of use (in a single order or line) e) availability and correctness of all necessary data about the consignee and payer for this order, as well as accurate indication of prices and order amount including surcharges special conditions its implementation.
MEASUREMENT AND MULTIPLICITY OF ORDERED MATERIALS - compliance of the dimensions of the materials (length and width) with the dimensions of the workpieces, which must be obtained from these materials. The order of dimensional and multiple materials is done in strict accordance with the dimensional - with the calculated dimensions of a single workpiece, and the multiple - with a certain integer number of blanks of the corresponding part or product. Measured materials free the consumer plant from preliminary cutting (cutting), thereby completely eliminating waste and labor costs for cutting. Multiple materials, when cutting them into blanks, can be cut without end waste (or with minimal waste), thereby achieving corresponding savings in materials.
When individually cutting into blanks of the same size, the consumption rate of sheet materials or sheets cut from a roll with dimensions that are multiples in length and width of the blank dimensions is determined as the quotient of dividing the weight of the sheet by the integer number of blanks cut from the sheet.
Table data 4 indicate significant differentiation in the provision of industries with funds for economic stimulation of workers. For the material incentive fund in 1980, the difference was 5-fold, and by 1985 it had decreased, despite the streamlining of prices as a result of their revision from January 1, 1982, to only 3-fold. For the fund of social and cultural events and housing construction, the ratio between the minimum and maximum values of these funds was in 1980 per 1 ruble. wages 1 4.6, and per 1 employee - 1 5.0. In 1985, similar figures were 1 3.4 and 1 4.1, respectively. It should be noted that in such industries as the forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries, as well as in the building materials industry, the size of the material incentive fund was below the “sensitivity limit” of bonus remuneration, which, according to estimates available in the literature, based on specific studies, is 10 - 15% in relation to wages.
Let the coordinates of the 1st post (xj7 y), where 1 coordinate system considers p posts and (t - p) sources. Let us divide the circle with the center at the point (xj y()) into k equal sectors so that the angular size of the sector v = = 360 /k was a multiple of the discreteness of wind direction measurements at high-altitude weather stations of the Ostankino TV tower, published in the yearbooks “Materials of high-altitude meteorological observations. Part 1”. We will count the sectors clockwise from the upper (northern) point of the circle. We will assume that the source (x. , y) falls into the 1st sector 1
Supply plans developed at enterprises reflect measures aimed at saving materials, using waste and secondary resources, supplying products with multiple and measured sizes, required profiles, and a number of other measures (involving excess and unused stocks, decentralized procurement, etc. .).
Measured and multiple materials received wide application in organizing the supply of rolled ferrous metals for machine building and factories. The use of measured and multiple rolled products allows saving from 5 to 15% of the metal weight compared to rolled products of regular commercial sizes. In transport engineering, this saving is even greater and varies by different buildings from 10 to 25%.
When determining the feasibility of ordering materials of multiple and cut lengths, it is necessary to take into account the possibility of using end waste from cutting rods or strips normal sizes to obtain blanks of other small parts by joint (combined) cutting of the source material. In this way, it is possible to achieve a significant increase in the utilization rate of rolled metal products without surcharges for dimensionality or multiplicity.
The current price lists (1967) for rolled profiles, pipes, strips, etc. materials provide for the cheapest supply of materials of mixed lengths (with length fluctuations within certain limits), a more expensive supply of precisely measured standard lengths, and finally, the most expensive supply of non-standard measured (or multiples of a given size) lengths. The rise in price varies by type of material, but the general trend is the same. In addition to increasing the cost of materials and complicating the work of manufacturing plants, order specialization entails an increase in the range and number of individual delivery lots, which dramatically complicates supply and increases the size of inventories.
This expense item includes almost all supplies, spare parts for equipment repair, building materials, materials and items for current economic activities, fire extinguishers, first aid kits emergency care, consumables for office equipment and computers, stationery, tools household chemicals, furniture, etc. These include items costing less than 50 times the minimum wage (5,000 rubles at the time of application) or a service life of less than 1 year, regardless of the cost of the item.
UT problem general view can be formulated as follows: it is required to find the minimum linear form expressing the number of used sheets of material (rods, etc.) for all methods of cutting them. See also Multiple sizes of materials
DIMENSIONED MATERIALS (pre ut materials) - materials whose dimensions correspond to the dimensions of the parts and blanks obtained from them. The efficiency of ordering M m lies in the complete elimination of production waste during cutting due to the elimination of operations for cutting blanks. For the delivery of M m, the supplier charges a markup. See also Multiples material dimensions
CUTTING (materials utting) - a technological process of obtaining parts and blanks from sheet materials (glass, plywood, metal, etc.) P is carried out taking into account the most rational use of sheet area and minimizing production waste. See also: Cutting problem, Multiple sizes of materials
See pages where the term is mentioned Multiple sizes of materials
: Logistics (1985) -- [Jackson 14-02-2007 01:56
Can you recommend something that is budget friendly and actually works?
yevogre 14-02-2007 12:19
quote: Originally posted by Jackson:
I took a Belarusian pipe with a variable magnification of 20x50, for work at the shooting range, the sellers guaranteed that at 200m I would be able to see holes on the target from 7.62 without problems, it turned out to be about 60m, and even then with difficulty (though the weather was cloudy).
Can you recommend something that is budget friendly and actually works?
Choose an increase for yourself - and try, try....
shtift1 14-02-2007 14:54
IMHO ZRT457M, in the region of 3 thousand (100USD), is quite functional up to 200 m, at 300 against a light background you can see from 7.62.
Jackson 14-02-2007 21:17
Thank you for your comments
stg400 15-02-2007 21:28
The question regarding pipes is very complex, you need to look at it first
to any. And the advice is this - DO NOT BUY A BUDGET PIPE WITH A VARIABLE
IN MULTIPLICITY. They don’t really know how to deal with constant work.
or won't it help?
yevogre 15-02-2007 21:37
I have an idea who would rate the “level of delusion”...
Cut out a “diaphragm” from cardboard
and stick it on the lens. To improve "sharpness".
The aperture will certainly drop. But don't throw away the pipe...or won't it help?
This is a way out if the main “instigator” of the loss of permission
is the lens. And this is 90% wrong. Lens with focus ~450 mm
We've already learned to count. And here it begins.....
The wrapper is a thick piece of glass in the path of the beam that magnifies
chromaticism in black. But that's not all. The most important thing is standard
eyepiece, the diagram of which has not been recalculated “as unnecessary”
decades. In this case, its focus should be around 10 mm, and when
In standard schemes, this resolution is “lowered” by an order of magnitude. About
I won’t even mention the variable multiplicity of such “masterpieces”.
Serega,Alaska 16-02-2007 08:20
quote: Originally posted by yevogre:
The question regarding pipes is very complex, you need to look at it first
to any. And the advice is this - DO NOT BUY A BUDGET PIPE WITH A VARIABLE
IN MULTIPLICITY. They don’t really know how to deal with constant work.
Choose an increase for yourself - and try, try....
How right is this...
From a positive experience, I bought a 20x50 constant from a little-known science manufacturer NCSTAR on eBay. It’s military-style, everything is covered in green rubber. Naturally, the pupil is 2.5 mm, you can’t spoil it. But it’s small, light, with its own tabletop tripod, and naturally the holes are visible , believe it or not. At 100 m there are no questions, but to see it at 200 m you still need more light, it only works until early twilight. The price tag on eBay is $25 with delivery. I won’t say that the issue has been resolved forever, but at the very least it works from a steel concrete table at a shooting range. At the same time, use in the field (from the hood, for example - in a good field) is absolutely excluded, everything trembles until a complete loss of sharpness.
Only a constant in the budget (they are not so easy to find, by the way)!
Dr. Watson 16-02-2007 09:41
Burris has a nice 20x trumpet.
stg400 16-02-2007 19:42
quote: Originally posted by Serega,Alaska:
manufacturer NCSTAR, little known to science.
stg400 19-02-2007 07:58
the “aperture” on the lens didn’t help..
throw away the pipe...
konsta 19-02-2007 23:46
Give it to children. At least there will be joy left over.
Serega,Alaska 20-02-2007 02:10
quote: Originally posted by Serega, AK:
manufacturer NCSTAR, little known to science.
quote: Originally posted by stg400:
manufacturer of optics under government order for the carry handle of the little-known M16 rifle...
although now there is no longer that government order..
Or maybe it wasn’t? So to speak, was there a government order?
The thing is that manufacturers are deservedly proud of such things and post information about this on all real and virtual fences. Here is AIMPOINT, for example. His website is full of camouflage, SWAT, police and other military elements. In the red corner - Aimpoint Secures New Contract From U.S. Military - http://www.aimpoint.com/o.o.i.s/90 about how they have already sold 500,000 sights to the army and contracted for another 163,000. And, really, go buy their products. Firstly, there is very little of it on the wide market; a search on eBay shows this clearly. (I have an auto search on AIMPOINT on eBay, it’s good if they put at least something up every two weeks. And the 9000L, which I’m interested in, has never come across.) Secondly, the AIMPONT that serious people have dealers - noticeably more expensive than competitors, including quite decent ones (for example, Nikon RED DOT Monarch - $350-450 for AIMPOINT red dot - this is a kind of record in this class, as is the 10-year warranty. All this is real). status as a military contractor with a reputation.
But NcSTAR does not proclaim anything like that. Rustem says it’s been 10 years since 1997, i.e. Not so much ancient history to mention the state order for their sights for the M16 in capital letters, if there ever was one. Yes, they do something like that for the M16, but which owner of a real M16 buys this for $50? And tons of everything from NcSTAR on eBay for pennies, including products for airborne replicas of the M-16, AR-15, etc. But serious dealers, as a rule, do not keep it.
I'm afraid someone misinformed you. And I, as I mentioned NcSTAR in a positive sense for the super-budget constant 20x50, I simply don’t want to attribute more to them than they deserve. Someone else will warm up, God forbid...
Thank you for your attention,
Serega, AK
stg400 20-02-2007 02:31
and there is also a bullshit airline PanAmerican... there are unknown companies Polaroid and Korel... their shares have long been withdrawn from trading on the stock exchanges...
so did NcStar.. made some kind of glass on the carry handle.. now the M16 with them is not in service.. all are flat top receivers and they have ACOG from another company..