Name: Human physiology.
G.I. Kositsky
The year of publishing: 1985
The size: 36.22 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian

This edition (3rd) considers all the basic questions of physiology, also includes questions of biophysics and the foundations of physiological cybernetics. The textbook consists of 4 sections: General physiology, Mechanisms of regulation of physiological processes, Internal environment organism, The relationship between the organism and the environment. The book is aimed at medical students.

Name: Human physiology. Atlas of dynamic schemes. 2nd edition
Sudakov K.V., Andrianov V.V., Vagin Yu.E.
The year of publishing: 2015
The size: 10.04 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: The presented textbook "Human physiology. Atlas of dynamic schemes" edited by K.V. Sudakova, in her revised and revised 2nd edition, considers such questions of normal physiology ... Download the book for free

Name: Human physiology in diagrams and tables. 3rd edition
Brin V.B.
The year of publishing: 2017
The size: 128.52 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: In the textbook "Human Physiology in Schemes and Tables" edited by VB Brin, issues of general physiology, physiology of organs and their systems, as well as the features of each of them are considered. The third of ... Download the book for free

Name: Physiology endocrine system
Pariiskaya E.N., Erofeev N.P.
The year of publishing: 2013
The size: 10.75 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: The book "Physiology of the Endocrine System", ed., Pariiskaya E.N., et al., Discusses the issues of normal physiology of hormonal regulation of reproductive function in men and women, issues of general ... Download the book for free

Name: Physiology of the Central Nervous System
Erofeev N.P.
The year of publishing: 2014
The size: 17.22 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: The book "Physiology of the Central Nervous System" under the editorship of N. Erofeeva, considers the principles of organization and function of the central nervous system for the control of movements, regulation of movements and muscular ... Download the book for free

Name: Clinical physiology in intensive care
Shmakov A.N.
The year of publishing: 2014
The size: 16.97 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: The tutorial "Clinical Physiology in Intensive Care", edited by A. Shmakov, considers the issues of the clinical physiology of critical conditions in pediatrics. Issues of age form are outlined ... Download the book for free

Name: Physiology of higher nervous activity with the basics of neurobiology. 2nd edition.
Shulgovsky V.V.
The year of publishing: 2008
The size: 6.27 MB
Format: djvu
Language: Russian
Description: The presented textbook "Physiology of higher nervous activity with the basics of neurobiology" examines the basic issues of the topic, including such aspects of the physiology of VND and neurobiology as the history of research ... Download the book for free

Name: Fundamentals of Heart Physiology
Evlakhov V.I., Pugovkin A.P., Rudakova T.L., Shalkovskaya L.N.
The year of publishing: 2015
The size: 7 MB
Format: fb2
Language: Russian
Description: A practical guide"Fundamentals of the physiology of the heart" under the editorship of VI Yevlakhov, et al., Considers the features of ontogenesis, anatomical and physiological features. principles of regulation of the heart. Outlined but ... Download the book for free

Name: Physiology in figures and tables: questions and answers
Smirnov V.M.,
The year of publishing: 2009
The size: 10.2 MB
Format: djvu
Language: Russian
Description: The book "Physiology in Figures and Tables: Questions and Answers" under the editorship of VM Smirnov, et al., Examines in an interactive form in the form of questions and answers the course of normal human physiology. Described ...

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human physiology- - EN human physiology A branch of biological sciences that studies the functions of organs and tissues in human beings. (Source: OMD / WOR) ... ... Technical translator's guide Great medical encyclopedia

Physiology (from the Greek φύσις nature and the Greek λόγος knowledge) the science of the laws of functioning and regulation biological systems different levels of organization, about the normal range of life processes (see normal physiology) and painful ... ... Wikipedia

PHYSIOLOGY, physiology, many others. no, wives. (from the Greek physis nature and logos doctrine). 1. Science about the functions, functions of the body. Human physiology. Plant physiology. || These very functions and the laws that govern them. Respiration physiology. Physiology ... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

- (from the Greek phýsis - nature and ... Logia) of animals and humans, the science of the vital activity of organisms, their individual systems, organs and tissues and the regulation of physiological functions. F. also studies the patterns of interaction of living organisms with ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1977 - The film tells about V. I. Lenin, certain periods of his life.

• Star Amazons, 2008 - Why are there only 50 women out of 400 people who have been in space? Men can hardly tolerate women even on an ordinary ship, and even more so on a space ship. And they operate with scientific data, since psychologists and physiologists have not yet come to a consensus on this issue. Physiologists believe that women and men should be equally divided. Women are more stress-resistant, which means they are good on long flights. They have less iron in their bodies and are less exposed to radiation. Men tolerate takeoff and landing better, make decisions faster. Men have larger veins, more active blood circulation, less dizziness. Psychologists think that in the men's team there is no reason for conflict. The presence of a woman makes men compete. Why do men in our country openly or latently oppose flights of the opposite sex into space? What superstitions exist around the stay of the fairer sex in starry space? The film tells about it.

Foreword
Chapter 1. Physiology and its importance for medicine. G. I. Kositsky
Development of methods of physiological research
Conclusion
SECTION I. GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY.
Introduction. G. I. Kositsky
Chapter 2. Physiology of excitable tissues. B. And Khodorov
Resting potential
Action potential
Mechanisms of cell (fiber) irritation by electric current
Chapter 3. Muscle contraction. B. I. Khodorov
Skeletal muscle
Smooth muscles
Chapter 4. Conduction of nerve impulses and neuromuscular transmission. B. I. Khodorov
Conducting a nerve impulse
Neuromuscular transmission
Trophic function of motor nerve fibers and their endings
Peculiarities of neuromuscular transmission of excitation and smooth muscles
Conclusion. G. I. Kositsky
SECTION II. MECHANISMS OF REGULATION OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES.
Introduction by G.I.Kositsky
Chapter 5. General physiology of the central nervous system. A. I. Shapovalov
Neural theory
Communication mechanisms between neurons
Mediator release process
Chemical mediators
Excitation in the central nervous system
Inhibition in the central nervous system
Integration of synaptic influences
Reflex activity of the CHC
Combining neurons into a nerve center
Chapter 6. Private physiology of the central nervous system. A. I. Shapovalov
Spinal cord
Hind brain
Midbrain
Cerebellum
Diencephalon
Forebrain
Bark large hemispheres
Coordination of movements. V.S.Gurfinkel and R.S.Person
Blood supply to the brain and cerebrospinal fluid. E. B. Babsky
Chapter 7. Nervous regulation of autonomic functions. E. B. Babsky and G. I. Kositsky
General plan of the structure and basic physiological properties of the autonomic nervous system
Vegetative innervation of tissues and organs
Vegetative reflexes and centers of regulation of autonomic functions
Chapter 8. Hormonal regulation of physiological functions. G. I. Kositsky
Internal secretion of the pituitary gland
Internal secretion of the thyroid gland
Internal secretion of the parathyroid glands
Internal secretion of the pancreas
Internal secretion of the adrenal glands
Internal secretion of the gonads
Placenta hormones
Internal secretion of the pineal gland
Tissue hormones
Conclusion. G. I. Kositsky
SECTION III. INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE BODY; SYSTEMS AND BODIES. PROCESSES PARTICIPATING IN MAINTAINING ITS CONSISTENCY.
Introduction. G. I. Kositsky
Chapter 9. Physiology of the blood system. G. I. Kositsky
Composition, quantity and physicochemical properties of blood
Blood clotting. V.P.Skipetrov
Blood types
Corpuscular elements of blood
Hematopoiesis and regulation of the blood system
Chapter 10. Blood circulation. E. B. Babsky, A. A. Zu6kov, G. I. Kositsky
Heart activity
Blood vessels
Chapter 11. Breathing. V. D. Glebovsky, G. I. Kositsky
External respiration
Exchange of gases in the lungs
Transport of gases by blood
Gas exchange in tissues
Respiration regulation
Chapter 12. Digestion. E. B. Babsky, G. F. Korotko
Physiological bases of hunger and satiety
Essence of digestion and classification digestive processes
Digestion in the mouth
Digestion in the stomach
Digestion in the small intestine
Digestion in the large intestine
Periodic activity of the digestive system
Suction
Chapter 13. Metabolism and energy. Nutrition. E. B. Babsky, V. M. Pokrovsky
Metabolism
Energy conversion and general metabolism
Nutrition
Chapter 14. Thermoregulation. E. B. Babsky, V. M. Pokrovsky
Chapter 15. Selection. Yu.V. Natochin
Kidneys and their function
The process of urination
Homeostatic renal function
Urination and urination
Consequences of kidney removal and artificial kidney
Age features of the structure and function of the kidneys
Conclusion. G. I. Kositsky
SECTION IV. RELATIONSHIP OF THE ORGANISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT.
Introduction. G. I. Kositsky
Chapter 16. Physiology of analyzers. E. B. Babsky, I. A. Shevelev
General physiology of analyzers
Private physiology of analyzers
Chapter 17. Higher nervous activity. E. B. Babsky, A. B. Kogan
General characteristics and properties of conditioned reflexes
Methodology for studying conditioned reflexes
Time link closure mechanisms
Inhibition of conditioned reflexes
Analysis and synthesis of irritations in the cerebral cortex
Types of higher nervous activity, neuroses
Chapter 18. Features of human higher nervous activity. E. B. Babsky, G. I. Kositsky
First and second signaling systems
Mechanisms of purposeful, human activity
Sleep physiology
The relationship between the processes of higher nervous activity, providing the emergence of consciousness and subconsciousness
Physiology of emotions
Chapter 19. Elements of labor physiology, mechanisms of training and adaptation. G. I. Kositsky
Physiology of physical labor
Physiological features of stressful work
Fatigue and physiological measures to prevent it
Training mechanisms
Adaptation mechanisms
Conclusion. G. I. Kositsky
Application. Basic quantitative physiological indicators
Bibliography
Subject index

PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS
Physiology is a science that studies the mechanisms of the body's functioning in its relationship with environment(this is the science of the vital activity of the organism), physiology is an experimental science and the main methods of physiological science are experimental methods. However, physiology as a science originated within medical science even before our era in Ancient Greece at the school of Hippocrates, when the method of observation was the main method of research. Physiology emerged as an independent science in the 15th century thanks to the research of Harvey and a number of other natural scientists, and, starting from the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries, the experimental method was the main method in the field of physiology. I.N. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov made a significant contribution to the development of methodology in the field of physiology, in particular, in the development of a chronic experiment.

Literature:

1. 
   Human physiology. Kositsky
2. 
   Korbkov. Normal physiology.
3. 
   Zimkin. Human physiology.
4. 
   Human Physiology, ed. Pokrovsky V.N., 1998
5. 
   Physiology of VND. Kogan.
6. 
   Physiology of humans and animals. Kogan. 2 t.
7. 
   Ed. Tkachenko P.I. Human physiology. 3 t.
8. 
   Ed. Nozdrocheva. Physiology. General course. 2 t.
9. 
   Ed. Kuraeva. 3 vol. Translated textbook? human physiology.

Observation method- the most ancient, originated in dr. Greece, was well developed in Egypt, on dr. East, Tibet, China. The essence of this method lies in the long-term observation of changes in the functions and states of the body, fixing these observations and, if possible, comparing visual observations with changes in the body after opening. In Egypt, during mummification, corpses were opened, the priest's observations of the patient: changes in the skin, the depth and frequency of breathing, the nature and intensity of discharge from the nose, oral cavity, as well as the volume and color of urine, its transparency, the amount and nature of excreted feces, its color, pulse rate and other indicators, which were compared with changes in internal organs, were recorded on papyrus. Thus, already by changing the excreted feces, urine, sputum, etc. it was possible to judge about the violation of the functions of one or another organ, for example, if the feces white it is permissible to assume a violation of liver function, if the feces are black or dark in color, then it is possible to assume gastric or intestinal bleeding. An additional criterion was changes in the color and turgor of the skin, swelling of the skin, its character, color of the sclera, sweating, trembling, etc.

Hippocrates attributed the character of behavior to the observed signs. Thanks to his careful observations, he formulated the doctrine of temperament, according to which all mankind is divided into 4 types according to the characteristics of behavior: choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic, but Hippocrates made a mistake in the physiological substantiation of the types. They based each type on the ratio of the main body fluids: sangui - blood, phlegm - tissue fluid, cholea - bile, melancholea - black bile. The scientific theoretical substantiation of temperaments was given by Pavlov as a result of long-term experimental research and it turned out that temperament is based not on the ratio of fluids, but on the ratio of nervous processes of excitation and inhibition, the degree of their severity and the predominance of one process over another, as well as the rate at which one process replaces others.

The observation method is widely used in physiology (especially in psychophysiology) and at present the observation method is combined with the method of chronic experiment.

Experimental method... Physiological experiment, in contrast to simple observation, is a purposeful intervention in the current function of the body, designed to elucidate the nature and properties of its functions, their interrelationships with other functions and with environmental factors. Also, the intervention often requires surgical preparation of the animal, which can wear: 1) acute (vivisectional, from the word vivo - live, sekcia - secu, i.e., sec on live), 2) chronic (experimental-surgical) forms.

In this regard, the experiment is divided into 2 types: acute (vivisection) and chronic. Physiological experiment allows you to answer the questions: what happens in the body and how it happens.

Vivisection is a form of experiment performed on an immobilized animal. For the first time, vivisection began to be used in the Middle Ages, but it began to be widely introduced into physiological science during the Renaissance (XV-XVII centuries). Anesthesia at that time was not known and the animal was rigidly fixed for 4 limbs, while it experienced torment and uttered heartbreaking screams. Experiments were carried out in special rooms, which the people christened "devilish". This was the reason for the emergence of philosophical groups and trends. Animalism (trends promoting a humane attitude towards animals and advocating an end to animal abuse, animalism is being promoted at the present time), vitalism (advocating that no experiments were carried out on non-narcotic animals and volunteers), mechanicism (identifying processes in inanimate nature, a bright representative of mechanism was the French physicist, mechanic and physiologist Rene Descartes), anthropocentrism.

Starting from the 19th century, anesthesia began to be used in an acute experiment. This led to a violation of the regulation processes on the part of the higher processes of the central nervous system, as a result, the integrity of the body's response and its connection with the external environment are disrupted. This use of anesthesia and surgical harassment during vivisection introduces uncontrollable parameters into the acute experiment that are difficult to take into account and predict. An acute experiment, like any experimental method, has its advantages: 1) vivisection is one of the analytical methods, it makes it possible to simulate different situations, 2) vivisection makes it possible to obtain results in a relatively short time; and disadvantages: 1) in an acute experiment, consciousness is switched off when anesthesia is applied and, accordingly, the integrity of the body's response is violated, 2) the body's connection with the environment is disrupted when anesthesia is used, 3) in the absence of anesthesia, stress hormones and endogenous (produced by inside the body) morphine-like substances endorphins, which have an analgesic effect.

All this contributed to the development of a chronic experiment - long-term follow-up after an acute intervention and restoration of relationships with the environment. The advantages of a chronic experiment: the body is as close as possible to the conditions of intensive existence. Some physiologists attribute the disadvantages of the chronic experiment to the fact that the results are obtained in a relatively long time.

The chronic experiment was first developed by the Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov, and, since the end of the 18th century, has been widely used in physiological research. In a chronic experiment, a number of methodological techniques and approaches are used.

The method developed by Pavlov is the method of imposing fistulas on hollow organs and on organs with excretory ducts. Basov was the ancestor of the fistula method, however, when a fistula was applied by his method, the contents of the stomach entered the test tube along with the digestive juices, which made it difficult to study the composition of gastric juice, stages of digestion, the rate of digestion and the quality of gastric juice different composition food.

Fistulas can be superimposed on the stomach, ducts of the salivary glands, intestines, esophagus, etc. The difference between Pavlov's fistula and bass fistula is that Pavlov applied a fistula to the "small ventricle" made artificially by surgery and preserving digestive and humoral regulation. This allowed Pavlov to identify not only the qualitative and quantitative composition of gastric juice for food intake, but also the mechanisms of nervous and humoral regulation digestion in the stomach. In addition, this allowed Pavlov to identify 3 stages of digestion:

1. 
   conditioned reflex - with it, appetizing or "hot" gastric juice is released;
2. 
   unconditioned reflex phase - gastric juice is released into the food received, regardless of its qualitative composition, because not only chemoreceptors are located in the stomach, but also non-chemoreceptors that react to the volume of food,
3. 
   intestinal phase - after food enters the intestines, digestion is enhanced.

For his work in the field of digestion, Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize.
Heterogeneous neurovascular or neuromuscular anasthenoses. This is a change in the effector organ in genetically determined nervous regulation of functions. Carrying out such anasthenosis reveals the absence or presence of plasticity of neurons or nerve centers in the regulation of functions, i.e. can sciatic nerve control the respiratory muscles with the rest of the spine.

In neurovascular anasthenosis, the effector organs are the blood vessels and, respectively, the chemo- and baroreceptors located in them. Anastenoses can be performed not only on one animal, but also on different animals. For example, if you make a neurovascular anasthenosis in two dogs to the carotid zone (branching of the carotid artery), you can reveal the role of various parts of the central nervous system in the regulation of respiration, hematopoiesis, and vascular tone. In this case, the mode of inhaled air is changed in the bottom dog, and the regulation is seen in the other.
Transfer various bodies... Transplantation and removal of organs or various parts of the brain (extirpation). As a result of removal of an organ, hypofunction of one or another gland is created, as a result of replanting, a situation of hyperfunction or excess of hormones of one or another gland is created.

Extirpation of various parts of the brain and cerebral cortex reveal the functions of these parts. For example, removal of the cerebellum revealed its role in the regulation of movement, in maintaining posture, and statokinetic reflexes.

Removing various parts of the cerebral cortex allowed Brodman to map the brain. He divided the bark into 52 fields according to functional divisions.

Spinal cord transection method. Allows to reveal the functional significance of each part of the central nervous system in the regulation of somatic and visceral functions of the body, as well as in the regulation of behavior.

The implantation of electrons into various parts of the brain. Allows you to identify the activity and functional significance of a particular nervous structure in the regulation of body functions ( motor functions, visceral functions and mental). Electrodes implanted in the brain are made of inert materials (i.e., they must be intoxicated): platinum, silver, palladium. Electrodes make it possible not only to reveal the function of a particular area, but also vice versa, to register in which part of the brain the appearance causes a potential (VT) in response to certain functional functions. Microelectrode technology gives a person the opportunity to study the physiological foundations of the psyche and behavior.

Cannula implantation (micro). Perfusion - the transmission of solutions of various chemical composition by our component or by the presence of metabolites in it (glucose, PVC, lactic acid) or by the content of biologically active substances(hormones, neurohormones, endorphins, enkepamines, etc.). The cannula allows you to inject solutions with different contents into one or another area of ​​the brain and observe changes in functional activity on the part of the locomotor system, internal organs or behavior, and psychological activity.

Microelectrode technology and konulation are applied not only to animals, but also to humans during brain surgery. In most cases, this is done for diagnostic purposes.

The introduction of labeled atoms and subsequent observation on a positron emission tomography (PET). Most often, auro-glucose labeled with gold (gold + glucose) is administered. According to Green's figurative expression, ATP is a universal donor of energy in all living systems, and in the synthesis and resynthesis of ATP, glucose is the main energy substrate (ATP resynthesis can also occur from creatine phosphate). Therefore, the amount of consumed glucose is judged on the functional activity of a particular part of the brain, on its synthetic activity.

Glucose is consumed by cells, and gold is not utilized and accumulates in this area. By differently active gold, its quantity is judged on the synthetic and functional activity.

Stereotactic methods. These are the methods in which surgical operations for implantation of electrodes into specific area brain in accordance with the stereotaxic atlas of the brain with the subsequent registration of the assigned fast and slow biopotentials, with the registration of evoked potentials, as well as the registration of EEG, myogram.

When setting new goals and objectives, the same animal can be used for a long time of observation, changing the location of trace elements or perfusing different areas brain or organs various solutions containing not only biologically active substances, but also metatolites, energy substrates (glucose, creotine phosphate, ATP).

Biochemical methods. This is a large group of methods by which the level of cations, anions, unnaked elements (macro and microelements), energetic substances, enzymes, biologically active substances (hormones, etc.) is determined in circulating fluids, tissues, and sometimes organs. These methods are applied both in vivo (in incubators) or in tissues that continue to secrete and synthesize produced substances into the incubation medium.

Biochemical methods make it possible to assess the functional activity of an organ or its part, and sometimes an entire system of organs. For example, the 11-ACS level can be used to judge the functional activity of the fascicular zone of the adrenal cortex, but the 11-ACS level can also be used to judge the functional activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system. In general, since 11-OCS is the end product of the peripheral adrenal cortex.

Methods for studying the physiology of VND. For a long time the mental work of the brain remained inaccessible to natural science in general and to physiology in particular. Mainly because she was judged by feelings and impressions, i.e. using subjective methods. Success in this area of ​​knowledge was determined when mental activity (MIA) was judged using the objective method of conditioned reflexes of varying complexity of development. At the beginning of the 20th century, Pavlov developed and proposed a technique for developing conditioned reflexes. On the basis of this technique, additional methods of studying the properties of GNI and localization of the processes of GNI in the brain are possible. Of all the techniques, the following techniques are most commonly used:

Tests of the possibility of the formation of different forms of conditioned reflexes (to the pitch of the sound, to the color, etc.), which makes it possible to judge the conditions of primary perception. Comparisons of these boundaries in animals different types allows you to reveal: in what direction was the evolution of the sensory systems of GNI.

Ontogenetic study of conditioned reflexes... Complex animal behavior of different ages studying it allows one to establish what is inherent in this behavior and what is acquired. For example, Pavlov took puppies of one litter and fed some with meat and others with milk. Upon reaching mature age developed conditioned reflexes in them, and it turned out that in those dogs that received milk from childhood, conditioned reflexes were developed for milk, and in those dogs that were fed with meat from childhood, conditioned reflexes were easily developed for meat. Thus, dogs do not have a strict preference for the type of carnivorous food, the main thing is that it is complete.

Phylogenetic study of conditioned reflexes. Comparing the properties of conditioned reflex activity in animals of different levels of development, one can judge in which direction the evolution of GNI is going. For example, it turned out that the rate of formation of conditioned reflexes sharply from invertebrates and vertebrates, changes comparatively little throughout the history of vertebrate development and suddenly reaches a person's ability to immediately connect ?, coincident events (imprinting), imprinting is also characteristic of brood birds (ducklings hatched from an egg can follow any object: a chicken, a person, and even a moving toy.In the transitions invertebrates - vertebrates, vertebrates - humans, the turning points of evolution associated with the emergence and development of GNI were reflected (in insects, the nervous system of a non-cellular type, in coelenterates - of the reticular type , in vertebrates - of the tubular type, in birds, ball ganglia appear, some cause a high development of conditioned reflex activity.

Ecological study of conditioned reflexes. The action potential arising in the nerve cells involved in the formation of reflex connections makes it possible to identify the main links of the conditioned reflex.

It is especially important that bioelectronic indicators make it possible to observe the formation of a conditioned reflex in the structures of the brain even before it appears in the motor or autonomic (visceral) reflexes of the body. Direct stimulation of the nerve structures of the brain makes it possible to set up model experiments on the formation of neural connections between artificial foci of excitation. It is also possible to directly determine how the excitability of the nerve structures participating in it changes during a conditioned reflex.

Pharmacological action in the formation or alteration of conditioned reflexes... By introducing certain substances into the brain, it is possible to determine what effect they have on the speed and strength of the formation of conditioned reflexes, on the ability to alter the conditioned reflex, which makes it possible to judge the functional mobility of the central nervous system, as well as on the functional state of the neurons of the cortex and their performance. For example, it was found that caffeine provides the formation of conditioned reflexes with a high working capacity of nerve cells, and with their low efficiency, even a small dose of caffeine makes excitation unbearable for nerve cells.

Creation of experimental pathology of conditioned reflex activity... For example, surgical removal of the temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex leads to psychic deafness. The method of extirpation reveals the functional significance of areas of the cortex, subcortex and brainstem. The localization of the cortical ends of the analyzers is determined in the same way.

Modeling the processes of conditioned reflex activity... Pavlov also attracted mathematicians in order to express by a formula the quantitative dependence of the formation of a conditioned reflex on the frequency of its reinforcement. It turned out that in most healthy animals, including humans, a conditioned reflex was developed in healthy people after 5 reinforcements with an unconditioned stimulus. This is especially important in service dog breeding and in the circus.

Comparison of psychological and physiological manifestations of the conditioned reflex... Support voluntary attention, flight, learning efficiency.

Comparison of psychological and physiological manifestations with bioelements and morphological with biokinetic: production of memory proteins (S-100) or areas of biologically active substances in the formation of conditioned reflexes. It has been proven that if vasoprocessing is introduced, then conditioned reflexes are developed faster (vasopressions are a neuro-hormone produced in the hypothalamus). Morphological changes in the structure of a neuron: a naked neuron at birth and with denuritis in an adult.
Laboratory lesson No. 1

Moscow "Medicine" 1985
For medical students

Human

Edited by

Corresponding Member Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR G. I. KOSITS KO G "O

third edition,

revised and supplemented

Approved by the Main Directorate educational institutions Ministry of Health of the USSR as a textbook for students of medical institutes

> BK 28.903 F50

/ DK 612 (075.8) ■

[E, B. BABSKII], V. D. GLEBOVSKY, A. B. KOGAN, G. F. KOROTKO,

G. I. KOSITSKY, V; M. Pokrovsky, Y. V. NATOchin, V. P. Skipetrov, B. I. Khodorov, A. I. Shapovalov

Reviewer Y..D.Boenko, prof., head. Department of Normal Physiology, Voronezh Medical Institute. N. N. Burdenko

UK1 5L4

1.1 "hi" Willi I

1 uedn u «i --c; ■ ■■ ^ ■ *

Human physiology/ Ed. G.I.Kositsky.- F50 3rd ed., Revised. and additional - M .: "Medicine", 1985. 544 p., ill.

In pen .: 2 p. 20 room 150,000 copies

The third edition of the textbook (the second was published in 1972) was written in accordance with the achievements modern science... New facts and concepts are presented, new chapters are included: "Peculiarities of human higher nervous activity", "Elements of labor physiology", mechanisms of training and adaptation ", sections covering the issues of biophysics and physiological cybernetics are expanded. significantly revised:.

The textbook corresponds to the program approved by the USSR Ministry of Health and is intended for students of medical institutes.

f ^^ 00-241 BBK 28.903

039(01)-85

(6) Publishing house "Medicine", 1985

FOREWORD

12 years have passed since the previous edition of the textbook "Human Physiology". There was no executive editor and one of the authors of the book, Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR EB, Babsky, according to whose guidelines many generations of students studied physiology, comrade. -

The composition of the group of authors of this publication includes well-known specialists in the corresponding sections of physiology: Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, prof. A.I.Shapovalov "and Prof. Yu, V. Natochin (Heads of Laboratories of the Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry named after I.M.Sechenov of the USSR Academy of Sciences), Prof. V.D. Glebovsky (Head of the Department of Physiology of the Leningrad Pediatric" Medical Institute) ; prof. , A.B. Kogan (Head of the Department of Human and Animal Physiology and Director of the Institute of Neurocybernetics, Rostov State University), prof. GF Korotks (Head of the Department of Physiology of the Andijan Medical Institute), pr ^ f. VM Pokrovsky (Head of the Department of Physiology of the Kuban Medical Institute), prof. BI Khodorov (head of the laboratory of the AV Vishnevsky Institute of Surgery of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences), prof. IA Shevelev (Head of the Laboratory of the Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of the USSR Academy of Sciences). - I

Over the past time, there has appeared a large number of new facts, views, theories, discoveries and directions of our science. In this regard, 9 chapters in this edition had to be written anew, and the remaining 10 chapters had to be revised and supplemented. At the same time, to the extent possible, the authors tried to preserve the text of these chapters.

The new sequence of presentation of the material, as well as its unification into four main sections, are dictated by the desire to give the presentation a logical harmony, consistency and, as far as possible, avoid duplication of material. ■ -

The content of the textbook corresponds to the program in physiology, approved in 1981. Also taken into account are the critical remarks about the project and the program itself, expressed in the decree of the Bureau, the Department of Physiology of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1980) and at the All-Union meeting of the heads of the departments of physiology of medical universities (Suzdal, 1982). In accordance with the program, the textbook contains chapters missing in the previous edition: "Peculiarities of human higher nervous activity" and "Elements of labor physiology, mechanisms of training and adaptation", as well as expanded sections covering the issues of private biophysics and physiological cybernetics. The authors took into account the fact that in 1983 a biophysics textbook was published for students of medical institutes (under the editorship of Prof. Yu. A. Vladimirov) and that the elements of biophysics and cybernetics are presented in the textbook of prof. AN Remizov "Medical and biological physics".

Due to the limited volume of the textbook, unfortunately, it was necessary to omit the chapter "History of Physiology", as well as excursions into history in separate chapters. In chapter 1, only sketches of the formation and development of the main stages of our science are given and its significance for medicine is shown.

Our colleagues helped a lot in creating the textbook. At the All-Union meeting in Suzdal (1982), the structure was discussed and approved, and valuable suggestions were expressed regarding the content of the textbook. Prof. VP Skipetrov revised the structure and edited the text of the 9th chapter and, in addition, wrote its sections concerning blood coagulation. Prof. V. S. Gurfinkel and R. S. Person wrote a subsection of pavas 6, "Regulation of movements." Assoc. NM Malyshenko presented some new materials for chapter 8. Prof. I.D.Boenko and his colleagues expressed many useful comments and wishes as reviewers.

Employees of the Department of Physiology II MOLGMI named after N. I. Pirogov prof. L. A. M. iutina, associate professors I. A. Murashova, S. A. "Sevastopolskaya, T. E. Kuznetsova, Ph.D. / V. I. Mongush and L. M. Popova took part in discussion of the manuscript of some chapters, (it would be desirable to express our deep gratitude to all these comrades.

The authors are fully aware that in such a difficult matter as the creation of an up-to-date textbook, shortcomings are inevitable and therefore will be grateful to everyone who exposes critical remarks and wishes to the textbook. "

Corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, prof. G. I. KOSITSKY

CHAPTER 1 (- v

PHYSIOLOGY AND ITS VALUE

Physiology(from rpew.physis - nature and logos - doctrine) - the science of the life of an integral organism and its individual parts: cells, tissues, organs, functional systems. Physiology seeks to reveal the mechanisms of the implementation of the functions of a living organism, their relationship with each other, regulation and adaptation to the external environment origin and formation in the process of evolution and individual development of an individual

Physiological patterns are based on data on the macro- and microscopic structure of organs and tissues, as well as on biochemical and biophysical processes occurring in cells, organs and tissues. Physiology synthesizes specific information obtained by anatomy, histology, cytology, molecular biology, biochemistry, biophysics and other sciences, combining them into a single system of knowledge about the body. Thus, physiology is a science that implements systems approach, that is, the study of the organism and all its elements as systems. The systematic approach orientates the researcher, first of all, towards disclosing the integrity of the object and providing e (mechanisms, i.e., at identifying diverse types of links complex object and bring them into unified / r theoretical picture.

An object the study of physiology - a living organism, the functioning of which kai of the whole is not the result of a simple mechanical interaction of its constituent parts. The wholeness of the organism arises and does not arise as a result of the influence of some supermaterial essence, which unquestioningly subordinates all the material structures of the organism to itself. Similar interpretations of the Integrity of the organism existed and still exist in the form of a limited mechanistic ( metaphysical) or no less limited idealistic ( vitalistic) approach to the study of life phenomena. The errors inherent in both approaches can only be overcome by studying these problems with dialectical materialist positions. Therefore, the regularities of the activity of the organism as a whole can be understood only on the basis of a consistently scientific worldview. For its part, the study of physiological laws provides rich factual material illustrating a number of the provisions of dialectical materialism. The connection between physiology and philosophy is thus two-way.

Physiology and Medicine /

Revealing the main mechanisms that ensure the existence of a whole organism and its interaction with the environment, physiology allows you to find out and investigate the causes, conditions and nature of violations, the activity of these mechanisms during illness. It helps to determine the ways and means of influence on the body, with the help of which it is possible to normalize its functions, i.e. restore health. Therefore physiology is theoretical basis medicine, physiology and medicine are inseparable. "The doctor assesses the severity of the disease by the degree of functional impairment, that is, by the magnitude of deviations from the norm of a number of physiological functions. Currently, such deviations are measured and quantified. Functional (physiological) studies are the basis clinical diagnosis, as well as a method for evaluating the effectiveness of treatment and prognosis of diseases. Examining the patient, establishing the degree of impairment of physiological functions, the doctor sets himself the task of returning e + and functions to normal.

However, the importance of physiology for medicine is not limited to this. The study of the functions [of various organs and systems allowed simulate these functions with the help of devices, apparatus and devices created by human hands. In this way, artificial kidney (hemodialysis machine). On the basis of the study of the physiology of the heart rate, an apparatus was created Electro about stimulation heart, providing normal cardiac activity and the ability to return to work for patients with severe heart damage. Manufactured artificial heart and devices artificial circulation(machines "heart - lungs") ^ allowing to turn off the patient's heart during a complex operation on the heart. There are devices for defib-1llations, which restore normal cardiac activity in case of death-> 1X violations of the contractile function of the heart muscle.

Research in the physiology of respiration has made it possible to design a device] I controlled artificial respiration("Iron lungs"). Devices have been created, with the help of which it is possible to long time turn off the patient's breathing. under conditions of therapy or: to support the life of the body for years with lesions of the respiratory 2ntra. Knowledge of the physiological laws of gas exchange and gas transport helped to create installations for hyperbaric oxygenation. It is used for fatal lesions of the system: blood, as well as the "respiratory and cardiovascular systems, ia based on the laws of brain physiology, methods of a number of complex neuro-irurgical operations have been developed. For example, electrodes are implanted into the cochlea of ​​a deaf person, according to which electrical impulses are received from artificial sound receivers, which to a certain extent restores hearing. ":

These are just a few examples of the use of the laws of physiology in the clinic, about the significance of our science goes far beyond the limits of only "medical medicine."

The role of physiology is to ensure human life and activity in various conditions

The study of physiology is necessary for the scientific substantiation and creation of conditions for a healthy lifestyle that prevents diseases. Physiological patterns are the basis scientific organization of labor v modern production... Physio-yugia made it possible to develop a scientific basis for various INDIVIDUAL TRAINING MODES and sports loads, which are the basis of modern sports achievements - 1. And not only sports. If you need to send a person into space or take a dip in the depths of the ocean, undertake an expedition to the North and South Pole, reach the peaks of the Himalayas, master the tundra, taiga, desert, place a person in extremely high or low temperatures, move him to different time zones, or " climatic conditions, then physiology helps to justify and provide all necessary for a person's life and work in such extreme conditions ..

Physiology and technology

Knowledge of the laws of physiology was required not only for scientific organization, and increasing labor productivity. Over billions of years of evolution, nature is known to have reached the highest perfection in the design and control of the functions of living organisms. The use in technology of the principles, methods and methods acting in the body opens up new prospects for technical progress. Therefore, at the junction of physiology and technical sciences, a new science was born - bionics.

The advances in physiology contributed to the creation of a number of other areas of science.

DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS

Physiology was born as a science experimental. Everything she obtains data by direct study of the vital processes of animal and human organisms. The founder of experimental physiology was the famous English physician William Harvey. v ". ■

- “Three hundred years ago, in the midst of deep darkness and now hardly imaginable confusion that reigned in the ideas of the activity of the animal and human organisms but illuminated by the inviolable authority of the scientific classical. heritage; doctor William Harvey spied on one of the most important functions of the body - blood circulation and thus laid the foundation for a new department of exact human knowledge - animal physiology ”, - wrote IP Pavlov. However, for two centuries after the discovery of blood circulation / Harvey, the development of physiology was slow. Relatively few fundamental works of the 17th-18th centuries can be enumerated. This opening of the capillaries(Malpighi), formulation of the principle .reflex activity of the nervous system(Descartes), measuring a quantity blood pressure(Health), the wording of the law conservation of matter(M.V. Lomonosov), the discovery of oxygen (Priestley) and commonality of combustion and gas exchange processes(Lavoisier), opening " animal electricity ", t. e . the ability of living tissues to generate electrical potentials (Galvani), and some other works:

Observation as a method of physiological research. The relatively slow development of experimental physiology over the two centuries after the work of Harvey is explained by the low level of production and development of natural science, as well as by the difficulties in studying physiological phenomena by their usual observation. Such a methodological technique was and remains the cause of numerous errors, since the experimenter must conduct an experiment, see and memorize many

Hj E. Vvedensky (1852-1922)

k: ludwig

: your complex processes and phenomena, which is a difficult task. The difficulties created by the method of simple observation of physiological phenomena are eloquently testified by the words of Harvey: “The speed of the cardiac movement does not allow us to distinguish how systole and diastole occur, and therefore it is impossible to know at what moment \ in which part of the expansion and contraction occurs. Indeed, I could not distinguish systole from diastole, since in many animals the heart shows and disappears in the blink of an eye, with the speed of lightning, so that it seemed to me once there was systole, and here - diastole, another time - the other way around. There is difference and inconsistency in everything. "

Indeed, physiological processes are dynamic phenomena. They are constantly evolving and changing. Therefore, it is possible to directly observe only 1-2 or, in best case, 2-3 processes. However, in order to analyze them, it is necessary to establish the relationship of these phenomena with other processes that, with any method of research, remain unnoticed. In this regard, simple observation of physiological processes as a research method is a source of subjective errors. Observation usually makes it possible to establish "only the qualitative aspect of phenomena and makes it impossible to investigate them quantitatively.

An important milestone in the development of experimental physiology was the invention of the kymograph and the introduction of the method of graphic registration of blood pressure by the German scientist Karl Ludwig in 1843.

Graphic registration of physiological processes. The method of graphic registration marked a new stage in physiology. It made it possible to obtain an objective record of the process under study, which minimized the possibility of subjective errors. In this case, the experiment and analysis of the phenomenon under study could be carried out in two, stages: During the experiment itself, the challenge for the experimenter was to get high-quality recordings - curves. The analysis of the data obtained could be carried out later, when the experimenter's attention was no longer distracted by the experiment. The method of graphic registration made it possible to record simultaneously (synchronously) not one, but several (theoretically unlimited) physiological processes. "..

Quite soon after the invention of blood pressure recording, there were proposed methods for recording the contractions of the heart and muscles (Engelman), the method was introduced; stuffy transmission (Marey's capsule), which made it possible to record, sometimes at a considerable distance from the object, a number of physiological processes in the body: respiratory movements chest and abdominal cavity, peristalsis and a change in the tone of the stomach of the intestine, etc. A method was proposed for recording vascular tone (Mosso plethysmography), changes in the volume of various internal organs "novoncometry, etc."

Research on bioelectric phenomena. An extremely important direction in the development of physiology was marked by the discovery of "animal electricity." Luigi Galvani's classic "second experiment" showed that living tissues are a source of: electrical potentials capable of affecting the nerves and muscles of another organism and causing muscle contraction. Since then, for almost a whole century, the only indicator of the potentials generated by living tissues [bioelectrical potentials), was; a neuromuscular preparation of a frog. He helped to open the potentials generated by the Heart during: its activity (the experience of K. elliker, and Müller), as well as the need for continuous generation of electrical potentials for the constant contraction of Muscles (the experience of "secondary reran mustache". Mateuchi). It became clear that bioelectric potentials are not "random (side) phenomena in the activity of living tissues, but signals through which commands are transmitted in the body to the nervous system! And from it: to muscles and other organs and thus living tissues. I interact "with each other using" electric language ". „

It was possible to understand this "language" much later, after the invention of physical devices that capture bioelectric potentials. One of the first such devices! there was a simple telephone. The remarkable Russian physiologist N.E. Vvedensky, with the help of a telephone, discovered a number of the most important physiological properties of nerves and muscles. Using the $ telephone, I was able to listen to bioelectric potentials, i.e. explore their paths / observations. A significant step forward was the invention of a technique for objective graphical recording of bioelectric phenomena. The Dutch physiologist Einthoveg invented -the device, which made it possible to register, on a photo paper, the electrical potentials arising from the activity of the heart, - an electrocardiogram (ECG). In our country, the pioneer of this method was A.F.Samoilov, a prominent physiologist disciple of I.M.Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov, who worked for some time in Einthoven's laboratory in Leiden, ""

Very soon the author received a reply from Einthoven, who wrote: “I have exactly fulfilled your request and read the letter to the galvanometer. Undoubtedly / he listened and accepted with pleasure and joy everything that you wrote. He had no idea that he had done so much for humanity. But at the place where Threat you say that he cannot read, he suddenly became furious ..: so that my family and I were even excited. He shouted: What, I can't read? This is a terrible lie. Don't I read all the secrets of the heart? " "

Indeed, electrocardiography from physiological laboratories very soon passed into the clinic as a very perfect method for studying the state of the heart, and many millions of patients today owe their lives to this method.

Subsequently, the use of electronic amplifiers made it possible to create compact electrocardiographs, and telemetry methods provide: the ability to record the ECG of astronauts in orbit, in athletes on the route and in patients in remote areas, from where the ECG is transmitted via telephone wires to large cardiology institutions for a comprehensive analysis.

"Objective graphical registration of bioelectric potentials, served as the main topic of the most important section of our science - electrophysiology. A major step forward was the proposal of the English physiologist Adrian to use electronic amplifiers to record biocentric phenomena. Soviet scientist V.V. Pravdich-eminsky was the first to register the biocurrents of the brain - he received electroscephalogram(EEG). This method was later perfected by the German scientist Ber-I ipoM. Currently, electroencephalography is widely used in the clinic, as well as the graphic recording of the electrical potentials of muscles ( electromyograph uya), nerves and other excitable tissues and organs. This made it possible to carry out a fine Nenka of the functional state of these organs and systems. For physiology itself, the smeared methods were also of great importance, they made it possible to decipher the functional and structural mechanisms of the activity of the nervous system and other organs of tissues, the mechanisms of regulation of physiological processes.

An important milestone ^ in the development of electrophysiology was the invention microelectrodes, That is, the thinnest electrodes, the tip diameter of which is equal to fractions of a micron. With the help of appropriate devices ■ - micromanipulators, these electrodes can be introduced directly into the cell and the bioelectric potentials can be registered intracellularly. \ Microelectrodes made it possible to decipher the mechanisms of biopotential generation, i.e. processes - occurring in the membranes of the cell. Membranes are the most important formations, since through them the processes of interaction of cells in the organism and individual elements cells among themselves. The science of the functions of biological membranes - membrapology - became an important branch of physiology.