I learned about the three physical states of water from my 6-year-older brother, who boasted of his knowledge of a science unknown to 9-year-old me - physics. For me, like for any child born in the middle zone of the northern hemisphere, the favorite state of water in nature is snow. As a child, every winter was associated primarily with playing in the snow, sledding and, of course, the New Year holidays. During the thaw, great pleasure came from the opportunity to build a snowman together with my parents and older brother.

How to have fun using solid water in winter

Making a snowman is not a difficult task. The instructions for sculpting a snow woman are never forgotten by your own children:

1. Roll 3 snow globes of different sizes.
2. Place the snowballs on top of each other. Below is the largest, above is the smallest.
3. Instead of hands, you can use dry tree branches.
4. Put a bucket on your head instead of a hat.
5. For the nose, it is best to use raw carrots.
6. Eyes and mouth can be depicted using pebbles or coal.
7. Wrap a scarf around the joint of the top snow globes.

The snowman is ready.

In winter, in addition to snow, water takes on other beautiful aesthetic forms:

• Frost. Looks especially beautiful in wells.
• Ice. A great way to have fun while skating or going down a slide.
• Ice on the windows. The patterns created by condensation and frost will be the envy of any impressionist artist.

Where is the best place to observe different states of water in nature?

The trip to Iceland left an indelible impression. The nature of the northern island is amazing. In the valley of geysers, water can simultaneously be observed in three states of aggregation: liquid (lakes), gaseous (emissions of steam from geysers) and solid (snow-capped mountain peaks). The most impressive was the excursion to the largest glacier in Iceland – Vatnajökull. The scale of the fresh water column preserved in the glacier is impressive. The frozen water mass occupies more than 8,000 square meters of area. The glacier is fed by underground lakes and occupies 8% of the island's territory. In the thickness of the ice there is a cave with a crystal clear blue arch. The frozen cave is the most beautiful state of water in nature that I have seen with my own eyes.

In this material we will look at water vapor, which is the gaseous state of water.

The gaseous state refers to the three main physical states of water found in nature under natural conditions. This issue is discussed in detail in the material Physical states of water.

water vapor

Clean water vapor has no color or taste. The greatest accumulation of steam is observed in the troposphere.

Water vapor is water contained in the atmosphere in a gaseous state. The amount of water vapor in the air varies greatly; its highest content is up to 4%. Water vapor is invisible; what is called steam in everyday life (steam from breathing in cold air, steam from boiling water, etc.) is the result of condensation of water vapor, like fog. The amount of water vapor determines the most important characteristic for the state of the atmosphere - air humidity.

Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006.

How is water vapor formed?

Water steam is formed as a result of “vaporization”. Vaporization occurs as a result of two processes - evaporation or boiling. During evaporation, steam is formed only on the surface of the substance, while during boiling, steam is formed throughout the entire volume of the liquid, as evidenced by bubbles actively rising during the boiling process. Boiling of water occurs at temperatures that depend on the chemical composition of the aqueous solution and atmospheric pressure; the boiling point remains unchanged throughout the entire process. Steam, formed as a result of boiling, is called saturated. Saturated steam in turn, it is divided into saturated dry and saturated wet steam. Saturated wet steam consists of suspended droplets of water, the temperature of which is at the boiling level, and, accordingly, the steam itself, and the saturated dry steam does not contain water droplets.

There is also “superheated steam”, which is formed when wet steam is further heated; this type of steam has a higher temperature and lower density.

Water vapor is an indispensable element of such an important process for our planet as the Water Cycle in nature.

We constantly encounter steam in everyday life, it appears above the spout of a kettle when boiling water, while ironing, when visiting a bathhouse... However, do not forget that, as we noted above, clean water vapor has no color or taste. Due to its physical properties and qualities, steam has long ago found its practical application in human economic activity. And not only in everyday life, but also when solving large global problems. For a long time, steam was the main driving force of progress, both in the literal and figurative sense of the expression. It was used as a working fluid for steam engines, the most famous of which is the STEAM LOGO.

Human use of steam

Steam is still widely used in economic and industrial needs today:

• for hygiene purposes;
• for medicinal purposes;
• for extinguishing fires;
• The thermal properties of steam are used (steam as a coolant) - steam boilers; steam jackets (autoclaves and reactors); heating of “freezing” materials; heat exchangers; heating systems; steaming of concrete products; in a special kind of heat exchangers...;
• use the transformation of steam energy into movement - steam engines...;
• sterilization and disinfection – food industry, agriculture, medicine...;
• steam as a humidifier - in the production of reinforced concrete products; plywood; in the food industry; in the chemical and perfume industry; in woodworking industries; in agricultural production...;

To summarize, we note that, despite all its “invisibility,” water vapor is not only an important element of the Earth’s global eco-system, but also a very useful substance for human economic activity.

"Water! You have no taste, no color, no smell, you cannot be described, they enjoy you without knowing what you are! It cannot be said that you are necessary for life, you are life itself. You fill us with unspeakable joy

You are the greatest wealth in the world."

Antoine de Saint-Exupéry.

No one is surprised by rain or falling snow, or the surface of a smoothly flowing river or lake. Another thing is the vast expanses of seas and oceans, giant glaciers sliding down from sky-high heights, jets of geysers gushing out from underground like fountains. These beauties are breathtaking. But rarely does anyone think about where the seas or rivers, rain or snow come from, what are the properties of water, which appears in such a diverse form.

In the history of our planet, water is extremely important. Perhaps no other substance can compare with water in its influence on the course of those greatest changes that the Earth has undergone over the many hundreds of millions of years of its existence.

Thanks to our everyday handling of water, we are so accustomed to it and to its various manifestations in nature that we often do not notice a number of its distinctive properties. But it is precisely these properties that we owe to the fact that our lakes and rivers do not freeze to the bottom in winter, that strong spring floods are relatively rare, that when water freezes it can cause great destruction, etc.

Water is the most mysterious liquid on Earth. The singers of the ancient steppe peoples - akyns and ashugs - have long sung of her, poets dedicated amazing lines to her. Ancient magicians, priests and other magicians knew how to manipulate water, performing real miracles in front of people. For example, they caused torrential rains or healed with “living” water. There was, perhaps, not a single village in Russia where there did not live a grandmother who knew how to cast a spell on water and thus heal diseases. And scientists to this day, like hundreds of years ago, cannot answer the question: what is water?

Water can be different - it can be melt, spring, heavy, magnetic, “living and dead”, “Epiphany - holy water”. Currently, Russian and foreign scientists know over 175 natural and created isotopic varieties of water and more than 200 types of ice. Russian scientists have established that water has an undistorted internal geometric shape and is capable of recording, storing and transmitting various information inside the human body and other living beings.

Knowledge about water cannot leave a person indifferent. In addition, it has an increasingly greater influence on human life. It was these circumstances that forced us to begin work on collecting information on this issue. The work will be based on:

➢ Analysis of the physical, chemical and biological properties of water.

➢ Systematization of data obtained from various media sources.

➢ Conducting an experiment in everyday conditions aimed at establishing the falsity or truth of the assumption about the presence of “memory” in a given structure.

➢ General conclusions of the work on the selected topic.

First of all, let's define what water is. There is no clear definition. From a chemical point of view, water is a structured substance consisting of 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom. From a physical point of view, it is a substance that exists in nature in three states of aggregation and has the corresponding physical properties.

Probably everyone knows the formula of water: H2O. The graphic image looks exactly like this. By decomposing water with an electric current, it was possible to establish that water contains 11.11% hydrogen and 88.89% oxygen by weight, and twice as much hydrogen is released from water as oxygen. If both of these released gases are mixed, then at room temperature this mixture can remain unchanged for a very long time. For just 1/6 of this mixture to turn into water, we would have to wait 54 billion years. But as soon as you bring a burning match to this mixture or pass an electric spark through it, a chemical reaction will instantly occur between hydrogen and oxygen: hydrogen will burn in oxygen, and the result will be water.

Scientists were able to discover the secret of the composition of water through research into the components of atmospheric air - oxygen, hydrogen, etc. June 24, 1783. A. Lavoisier and P. Laplace, in the presence of a group of their fellow scientists, “made” water from oxygen and hydrogen. They obtained water as a product of the combustion of hydrogen (and the fact that oxygen – “fire air” – is involved in the combustion process became known a little earlier). In this case, the weight of the resulting water was equal to the weight of hydrogen and oxygen participating in the combustion reaction.

So one day it became clear that water is not a simple element, but a complex substance. But what a long and difficult path led to this significant day, how many griefs, disappointments, mistakes and personal tragedies the natural scientists endured until the water finally revealed its nature.

To the question: how much oxygen and hydrogen is needed to form water, he gave his answer in 1785. A. Lavoisier and engineer Jean Meunier. They found out that for its formation it is necessary to combine 2 g of hydrogen and 16 g of oxygen.

The relative position of the molecules of the nuclei of hydrogen and oxygen atoms and the distance between them have also been well studied and measured. The distance between the hydrogen atoms is 154 ten billionths of a centimeter, and the angle at the vertex at which the oxygen atom is located is about 105 degrees. It turned out that the water molecule is nonlinear, that is, geometrically, the mutual arrangement of charges in the molecule can be depicted as a simple tetrahedron.

All water molecules with any isotopic composition look exactly the same.

But how are water molecules in water built? Unfortunately, this very important issue has not yet been sufficiently studied. The structure of molecules in liquid water is very complex. When ice melts, its network structure is partially preserved in the resulting water. The molecules in melt water consist of many simple molecules - aggregates that retain the properties of ice. As the temperature rises, some of them disintegrate and their sizes become smaller.

Mutual attraction leads to the fact that the average size of a complex water molecule in liquid water significantly exceeds the size of a single water molecule. This extraordinary molecular structure of water determines its extraordinary physicochemical properties.

Even the ancient Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus, who lived two and a half thousand years ago, drew attention to the fact that water is the only substance that occurs in nature in three states: solid, liquid, gaseous. It turns out that water owes its existence in three states at once to one important circumstance - the fact that the Earth revolves around the Sun at an average distance of 149.6 million km. If this distance were less than 134 million km, then the water on the planet would evaporate, and more than 166 million km would turn into ice.

Any water, no matter where it was taken from - from the Arctic Ocean, from a deep mine in Donbass, enclosed in a snowflake or sparkling early in the morning in a drop of dew on a flower - consists of identically constructed molecules. However, the relative position of individual molecules relative to each other in liquid water, a snowflake, or steam from a steam boiler is not the same.

Water vapor heated to three hundred degrees at atmospheric pressure is similar to ordinary gases: in them the distances between molecules are large enough so that each individual molecule can exist more or less independently, without experiencing significant interaction from its neighbors, with the exception, of course, of those cases when molecules collide with each other as a result of random thermal motion.

In a snowflake or a piece of ice, the molecules are brought together and fixed in certain places in the crystal lattice; the motion of molecules is mostly limited to vibrations around certain average positions.

Let us repeat once again that science does not yet have a strict, firmly established theory regarding the structure of liquids, in particular water. It is assumed that liquid water in its structure is something between ice crystals and steam. The study of the structure of water using infrared and X-rays made it possible to believe that at temperatures close to the freezing point, liquid water molecules gather in small groups and are “packed” into space approximately as in crystals, and at temperatures close to the boiling point water, at normal pressure, they are located more freely, randomly.

Water is such an unusual substance that all its properties are special and do not obey many physicochemical laws that are valid for other compounds. Let's analyze the main ones.

I. Boiling point.

The boiling point of water is probably known to everyone - it is one hundred degrees above zero. Moreover, everyone knows that it is the boiling point of water at normal atmospheric pressure that was chosen as one of the reference points of the temperature scale, conventionally designated 100ºC. However, let's pose the question differently: at what temperature should water boil? After all, the boiling temperatures of various substances are not random. They depend on the position of the elements that make up their molecules in Mendeleev’s periodic table.

If we compare chemical compounds of different elements with the same composition that belong to the same group of the periodic table, it is easy to notice that the lower the atomic number of an element, the lower its atomic weight, the lower the boiling point of its compounds. Based on its chemical composition, water can be called an oxygen hydride. H2Te, H2Se and H2S are chemical analogues of water. If you monitor the boiling points and compare how the boiling points of hydrides change in other groups of the periodic table, then you can quite accurately determine the boiling point of any hydride, as well as any other compound. Mendeleev himself was able to predict the properties of chemical compounds of elements not yet discovered in this way.

If we determine the boiling point of oxygen hydride by its position in the periodic table, it turns out that water should boil at -80ºС. Therefore, water boils approximately one hundred and eighty degrees higher than it should boil

The boiling point - this is its most common property - turns out to be extraordinary and surprising.

II. Freezing temperature.

The second reference point of the thermometer is the freezing point of water equal to zero degrees. Everyone knows this. But if we again pose the question a little differently: what should be the freezing point of water in accordance with its chemical structure, water will again display its extraordinary properties. Oxygen hydride, based on its position in the periodic table, would solidify at one hundred degrees below zero.

III. Heat capacity.

The climate on the planet also depends on another property of water - very high heat capacity, that is, the ability to give off and accumulate heat. One liter of water can store 330 times more heat than the same volume of air. Water heats up more slowly, but retains heat for a long time. Therefore, on a summer evening at sea, the water is warmer than the sand on the shore (the heat capacity of sand is 5 times lower than that of water).

And the World Ocean is a kind of heating pad for the continents. Its huge reserves of water literally “make the weather” on Earth. In summer it prevents the land from overheating, and in winter it constantly “supplies” heat to it. Therefore, in countries located near the ocean, there is a mild maritime climate; there is neither harsh winter nor cold nights. Temperature differences between seasons are small here.

IV. Surface tension.

Water has another feature - extremely high surface tension. Water molecules on its surface experience the forces of intermolecular attraction only on one side, and in water this interaction is anomalously strong. Therefore, every molecule on its surface is drawn into the liquid. As a result, a force arises that tightens the surface of the liquid. In water it is especially high: its surface tension is 72 mN/m (millinewtons per meter).

This force gives a soap bubble, a falling drop and any amount of liquid in conditions of weightlessness the shape of a ball. It raises water in the soil, the walls of thin pores and holes in it are well wetted with water. Agriculture would hardly be possible at all if water did not have this exceptional feature.

V. Salinity.

One of the most important properties of water is salinity. In a molecule of a substance, the centers of positive and negative charges are strongly displaced relative to each other. Therefore, water has an exceptionally high, anomalous value of dielectric constant. For water ع=80, and for air and vacuum ع=1. This means that any two opposite charges in water are mutually attracted to each other with a force 80 times less than in air. After all, according to Coulomb’s law: f= k*Q1*Q2 er2

But still, intermolecular bonds in all bodies, which determine the strength of the body, are caused by the interaction between the positive charges of atomic nuclei and negative electrons. On the surface of a body immersed in water, the forces acting between molecules and atoms weaken under the influence of water by almost a hundred times. If the remaining bond strength between molecules becomes insufficient to withstand the effects of thermal motion, molecules and atoms of the body begin to break away from its surface and pass into water. The body begins to dissolve, breaking up either into individual molecules, like sugar in a glass of tea, or into charged particles - ions, like table salt.

It is thanks to its abnormally high dielectric constant that water is one of the most powerful solvents. It is even capable of dissolving any rock on the earth's surface. Slowly and inevitably, it destroys even granites, leaching easily soluble components from them.

There is no such strong rock in nature that could resist the almighty destroyer - water.

I. General characteristics of ice.

Ice and snow are another of the three physical states of water, which again and again amazes us with its unusual beauty. Ice has a mysterious crystalline structure. Its structure and strength are determined by the strength of hydrogen bonds between individual water molecules. Hydrogen bonding plays a huge role in the structure of biopolymer molecules in the tissues of all living organisms. This may be of great importance for life, since traces of ice structure appear to persist for a long time in melt water.

In recent decades, a new important area of ​​knowledge has begun to develop - ice physics. Ice is durable, cheap and a good building material. Dwellings and warehouses are built from it, it creates natural reliable roads, crossings, and runways. Ice is a cause of natural disasters. It destroys dams, demolishes bridges, binds the soil, and causes icing of planes and ships. It has become absolutely necessary to study all the properties of ice, to determine its mechanical, electrical, acoustic, electromagnetic, and radiation characteristics.

But first, let’s figure it out: are there many types of ice in our terrestrial conditions? It turned out that there were quite a few - just one. This is the most beautiful of all minerals. Not only mountains and colossal glaciers on Earth are made of this bluish-green stone; entire continents are covered with it.

In his laboratories, man managed to discover at least six more different, no less amazing ices.

Types of ice Pressure Melting point

1. Regular ice. Up to 208 MPa -22°

2. Ice - III More than 208 MPa -

3. Ice - II Up to 300 MPa -

4. Ice - V More than 500 MPa Above 0°

5. Ice - VI 2 GPa More than 80°

6. Ice - VII 3 GPa 190°

Table No. 1.

But they can only exist at very high pressures. Ordinary ice is preserved up to a pressure of 208 MPa (megapascals), but at this pressure it melts at -22ºC. If the pressure is higher than 208 MPa, dense ice appears - ice III. It is heavier than water and sinks in it. At lower temperatures and higher pressures – up to 300 MPa – even denser ice-II is formed. Pressure above 500 MPa turns ice into ice-V. This ice can be heated to 0ºС and it will not melt, although it is under enormous pressure. At pressures of about 2 GPa (gigapascals), ice-VI appears. This is literally hot ice - it can withstand temperatures of 80ºC without melting. Ice-VII, found at a pressure of 3 GPa, can perhaps be called hot ice. This is the densest and most refractory ice known. It melts only at 190ºС above zero.

II. Ice properties:

1. Electric. Ice turned out to be a good semiconductor. Moreover, its conductivity is of the proton type. It has been established that when water freezes, an electrical potential difference reaches tens of volts at the boundary between ice and water.

2. Mechanical. The mobility of molecules has been discovered in the crystal lattice of ice: they can not only rotate, but also move abruptly over relatively large (on a molecular scale) distances.

3. Acoustic. When studying the processes of formation and behavior of ice in nature, it was found that polar ice “screams” in a stressed state. When the deformation of the ice begins, then, as F. Nansen describes, a slight crackling and groaning occurs, intensifying, they pass through all kinds of tones - the ice now cries, now groans, now rumbles, now roars, gradually increasing, one hundred “voices” become similar the sound of all the pipes of the organ.

4. Thermal. The enormous amount of heat released when water freezes delays the onset of winter cold. The heat absorbed by melting ice slows down the arrival of spring. Climate changes on Earth are associated with changes in the mass of ice on the planet. But an accurate calculation of the relationship between the weather and the colossal energy intensity of these global processes is not yet possible - there is too much unknown about them.

5. Radiation. In old records there are legends that sometimes ice fields acquire the ability to glow in the dark for a long time, emitting a faint light after being illuminated by the sun. It would be interesting to know whether this is true, when and why this phenomenon occurs, and what is explained. There are observations that sometimes snow also glows if it is brought into a dark room at several degrees of frost after being illuminated by the bright sun. They say that the first hailstones also glow - they seem to have electroluminescence.

III. General characteristics of snowflakes as a form of ice.

In the crystal lattice of ice there are planes in which oxygen atoms are arranged so that they form regular hexagons. Probably, the most common six-rayed shape of graceful snowflake stars is connected with this.

The amazing beauty and endless variety of shapes of snowflakes have inspired many scientists to conduct long-term research into this amazing mystery of nature.

Tens of thousands of photographs of snowflakes were obtained in a wide variety of conditions: high in the clouds, near the ground, in the Far North, and in the south - wherever snow can fall.

In addition to a huge variety of the most diverse forms of hexagonal symmetry, in addition to hexagons, among snowflakes there are also plates, columns, and needle-shaped forms. Scientists have discovered many different forms of snowflakes in nature. To be very precise, you will probably have to admit that absolutely identical snowflakes do not exist. In the infinite variety, each of them differs in some way in structure, shape, size.

During very severe frosts (at temperatures below -30ºС), ice crystals fall out in the form of “diamond dust” - in this case, a layer of very fluffy snow consisting of thin ice needles forms on the surface of the earth. Usually, during their movement inside an ice cloud, ice crystals grow due to the direct transition of water vapor into the solid phase. How exactly this growth occurs depends on external conditions, in particular on temperature and humidity. Scientists have identified the nature of the dependence in general terms, but have not yet been able to explain it.

Under some conditions, ice hexagons grow rapidly along their axis, and then snowflakes of elongated shape are formed - snowflakes-columns, snowflakes-needles. Under other conditions, hexagons grow predominantly in directions perpendicular to their axis, and then snowflakes are formed in the form of hexagonal plates or hexagonal stars. A drop of water can freeze to a falling snowflake, resulting in the formation of irregularly shaped snowflakes. We see, therefore, that the widespread belief that snowflakes necessarily have the shape of hexagonal stars is erroneous. The shapes of snowflakes turn out to be very diverse. There are collections of microphotographs containing more than five thousand snowflakes, differing in shape from each other. Under certain conditions (it is required, in particular, that there is no wind), falling snowflakes adhere to each other, forming huge snow flakes. Flakes can be up to 10 cm in diameter or even larger.

I. General provisions on the gaseous state of water. Saturated water vapor.

The only gaseous state of water is steam. How many types of steam are there? The same amount as water. Water vapors, different in isotopic composition, have, although very similar, but still different properties: they have different densities, at the same temperature they differ slightly in elasticity in the saturated state, they have slightly different critical pressures, different diffusion rate.

Let's try to understand the so-called saturated water vapor. Let's assume that we are on the shore of some body of water and looking at the surface of the water. She seems calm to us. But in reality, a great many micro-events take place in front of us that are inaccessible to our gaze. The fastest water molecules, overcoming the attraction of other molecules, jump out of the water mass and form steam above the water surface. We call this water evaporation. Molecules of water vapor collide with each other and with air molecules, some of the vapor molecules pass back into liquid. This is steam condensation. At a given temperature, a kind of equilibrium is established (it is called dynamic), when the number of water molecules leaving the liquid per unit time is, on average, equal to the number of water molecules returning back during the same time. We can say that the processes of evaporation and condensation are mutually compensated. The water vapor located in this case above the surface of the water is called saturated.

If the temperature suddenly rises, the steam will become unsaturated: the evaporation process will begin to prevail over the condensation process, as a result, the steam pressure will begin to increase. This will continue until the dynamic equilibrium between evaporation and condensation is again established, in other words, until the steam becomes saturated again.

If, on the contrary, the temperature suddenly drops, the steam will become oversaturated - now condensation will begin to prevail over evaporation. As a result, the steam pressure will decrease until dynamic equilibrium, i.e., the state of steam saturation, is again achieved.

We see, therefore, that the saturated vapor pressure depends on temperature: it increases with increasing temperature and falls with decreasing temperature. Often, instead of vapor pressure, its density Q (the mass of water vapor per unit volume) is considered. It is clear that the saturated vapor density Qn increases with increasing temperature and falls with decreasing temperature. Figure 8 shows a graph of saturated vapor density versus temperature.

The graph shows that when the temperature increases, for example, from 5°C to 40ºC, the density of saturated steam increases by more than 10 times.

Note that the graph shown is for a flat water surface. Above a convex surface, the density (and pressure) of saturated vapor at a given temperature is greater than above a flat surface, and above a concave surface, on the contrary, it is less. The fact is that in the case of a convex surface there are more favorable conditions for the predominance of emission over condensation, while the concave shape of the surface is more favorable to condensation.

Now let’s mentally remove the surface of the water and imagine a certain volume of air containing a certain amount of water vapor. Let the density of these vapors be equal to the density of saturated vapor at a given temperature (in accordance with the graph in Figure 8). Let us assume that the air temperature in the volume under consideration suddenly decreased. Then the water vapor will be oversaturated, steam condensation will begin and moisture will appear on the walls of the volume - dew will fall. This will continue until the density of water vapor in the volume under consideration decreases to a value equal to the density of saturated water vapor at the new temperature.

Fog as one of the forms of the gaseous state of water.

In a certain sense, the occurrence of fog is the phenomenon of dew falling. It is important, however, that dew falls in this case not on the surface of the earth or water, not on the surface of leaves or blades of grass, but in the volume of air. Under certain conditions, water vapor in the air partially condenses, resulting in water droplets of fog. Let us immediately note that only a very small part of the mass of water vapor turns into water contained in the fog droplets. From the graph in Figure 8 it is clear that at normal temperatures (close to 20ºC) the total mass of saturated vapor in a cubic meter of air is 20g. At the same time, the water content of the fog does not exceed 0.1 g/m3. This means that approximately no more than 1% of the mass of water vapor condenses into the water of fog droplets.

Conditions for condensation of water vapor:

❖ The presence of supersaturated vapors in the air, the density of which should be several times greater than the density of saturated vapor.

There are two ways to produce steam. Let's consider one of them. In the case (Fig. 9) the air has a certain and, moreover, quite high absolute humidity q0; the air temperature gradually decreases. Upon reaching temperature T=T1 (dew point), the steam is saturated; with further cooling it becomes supersaturated. It is necessary to cool the air to such a temperature T2 that the corresponding saturated vapor density qн is several times less than the absolute humidity q0 (see figure). The fog that falls in this case is called cooling fog.

Experimental study.

Ancient magicians, priests and other magicians knew how to manipulate water, performing real miracles in front of people. For example, they caused torrential rains or healed with “living” water. There was, perhaps, not a single village in Russia where there did not live a grandmother who knew how to cast a spell on water and thus heal diseases.

Dr. Masaru Emoto from Japan conducted research, the results of which show that healers know their stuff. Water molecules perceive information and absorb it, changing its structure. Kind words can turn liquid into a miraculous elixir.

They say that on Epiphany, any water coming even from the tap has healing and cleansing properties. And if you dive into the ice hole that day, you will probably get rid of all your ailments. Why does this happen? It’s simple - the memory of water about the Day of Holy Epiphany, when the miracle happened, is preserved from millennium to millennium. And the miracle occurs again and again on this very day, when millions of people ask for water for Salvation. He crossed himself and said: “With God!” - and dived. He entered the water old and decrepit to emerge young and healthy, just like in a fairy tale.

If you do not want to turn to healers, you can simply read the Lord’s Prayer over the water and drink it - this is how diseases are healed.

Dr. Emoto showed how information influences water in practice. The Japanese scientist took water samples from different places, froze the prototypes, and then examined the resulting crystals under a microscope.

To begin with, he compared water from a clean spring and water from a city reservoir. And I was amazed at how different the results were! Crystals from spring water were distinguished by rare beauty and harmony, but their city counterparts were less fortunate: their crystalline form was destroyed, and the picture turned out to be ugly and disharmonious.

Then the scientist went further. He took a water sample from Lake Fujiwara. After this, the priest of the local temple prayed for an hour on the shore of the lake, and then the scientist again took a sample from the same place. The changes were simply amazing: the first test produced ugly, dirty blots, and the second produced clean, bright white hexagons.

Inspired, Dr. Emoto began to come up with new experiments. He let the water “listen” to different music, he glued pieces of paper with different words to water containers, he placed the canisters in a room with children and in a room with aggressive adults (Tokyo Stock Exchange) And each time he compared the water crystals “before” and “after” "

There could be no doubt. Water understands the information that is communicated to it, and depending on this, it changes its structure!

But modern scientists have other opinions (see Appendix, table No. 1). As you can see, these opinions differ greatly, and radically; neither side can agree with the opinion of the opposite. It was this conflict that aroused my genuine interest. Unfortunately, there are too many facts, and, it seems, they are all very convincing and accurate. The only chance to resolve my internal contradiction is to conduct this, let’s say, very interesting experiment myself.

To begin with, at least in general terms, let’s try to establish the procedure for conducting the experiment:

1. Identification of a physical phenomenon, establishment of the purpose of the study, methods of its implementation.

2. Equipment, experimental setup.

3. Establishing the expected result (hypothesis).

4. Description of experience (work progress)

5. Establishment of the results of the experiment, conclusion on the work, continuation of the study.

So let's begin

An experiment to establish the falsity or truth of the assumption that water has “memory”.

The phenomenon under study: the “memory” of water.

Purpose of the study: to determine the falsity or truth of the hypothesis (the presence of “memory” in water).

Research methods: experimental observation.

Equipment: refrigerator, 2 containers (glass) of the same volume.

Expected result: the formation of ice crystals of a certain shape, depending on the type of exposure to the substance.

Description of the experience.

We fill the containers with water from one source at room temperature. We leave one glass unattended for a while. We let the second listen to “hard rock”, negative phrases. For the first, classical music along with such phrases as “I love you”, “thank you”. Place both glasses in the refrigerator (temperature ≈ -18ºС). After two hours, take it out and put it in the light.

The result of the experience.

The water in the container, to which bad words were said, froze badly from the inside, and the crystals were somewhat reminiscent of alligator teeth. The water with which the opposite actions were carried out froze completely, forming crystals that looked like a vortex.

Conclusion on the work.

Unfortunately, despite the fact that I was surprised by the crystals of “negative” water, it cannot be said unequivocally that “memory” really exists in the substance. As they say, “those who want to see will always see.” But this property cannot be denied either, at least not without a compelling refutation.

In this work, technical objects can be considered a refrigerator and glass containers. Objects of nature: water.

Study of the process of melting ice in water and air.

Phenomenon under study: melting of ice in various environments.

Purpose of the study: to investigate the process of ice melting in water and air.

Research methods: experimental (observation, experiment, measurement).

Equipment: glass, icicle, thermometer.

Expected result: melting of ice in air will occur faster than in water, that is, the upper part of the icicle will melt earlier than the lower part (at the bottom of the glass).

Description of the experience.

Place the icicle vertically in an empty glass. After 10 minutes, a small amount of water appeared in the glass, because part of the icicle had melted. The initial water temperature is 0ºС. The water level in the glass gradually increases; when there is a lot of water, measure its temperature with a thermometer. The top layer of water has a temperature of 0ºС, at the bottom the water temperature = 2ºС.

The result of the experience.

The icicle melts over the entire surface, but unevenly. The upper part of the icicle, which was in the air, melted faster. Than the part that was in the water. If you carefully examine the lower part of the icicle in the water, you will notice that it has melted more at the very bottom. The ice melting process occurs more slowly at the air-water boundary, because there the temperature = 0ºC.

The icicle gradually takes on such a shape that the upper and lower parts become smaller than the central one (closer to the boundary of the media).

Conclusion from the work: the thickest part of the icicle is near the surface of the water. The water temperature at the bottom of the glass is above 0ºС, because heat comes from the bottom, walls of the glass, and from the air.

Continuation of the study: the icicle will completely melt, the ice will turn into water.

In this work, technical objects can be considered a glass and a thermometer.

Objects of nature: icicle, water.

Research work

"The place of water in our lives."

The next stage of my work will be to conduct research on the topic “The importance of water in our lives” by conducting a survey among school students and analyzing the data obtained.

Questions compiled for the survey:

1. Do you use large amounts of water every day?

2. How do you assess the quality of water in our city?

3. Do you drink unboiled water?

4. Do you believe in the healing properties of Holy water?

5. Do you think the city's water quality has improved or worsened?

6. What methods do you use to improve water quality?

Questionnaire analysis:

School survey data showed:

➢ 100% of students use large water resources every day.

➢ The majority (45%) of respondents rate the quality of water in the city as “poor”; 20% of students gave the rating “average quality”. The main complaints are the high content of chlorine in the water.

➢ To the question “Do you drink unboiled water?” 53 percent of respondents responded positively. But with the caveat that not often.

➢ 89% of schoolchildren surveyed believe in the healing properties of Holy water, while 11% doubt it.

➢ The overwhelming majority (85%) of schoolchildren claim that the quality of water has noticeably deteriorated, 10% do not know how to answer this.

➢ It turned out that 53% of respondents use it for cleansing during

➢ It turned out that 53% of respondents use filters to purify water. The questionnaires contained filters of the following brands: “Aquaphor”, “Barrier”. The rest of the students do not use any methods to purify water other than boiling.

As we can see, the survey results are contradictory. The majority of children surveyed are concerned about the consumption of unboiled water. Of course, in small quantities, unboiled water can even be useful, but only if it does not have harmful impurities. And in Kotelnich, as we know, chlorine cannot be avoided. And throughout Russia, too!

Research work

“How much water do we drink?”

In Russia, which does not experience problems with water resources, this problem may seem far-fetched. But for many countries and for the planet as a whole, the problem of fresh and drinking water is one of the most important. Experts do not rule out that in 50 years, wars will rage on Earth, especially in Africa, over water, just as they are over oil. Already, a third of the world's population lives in conditions of acute water scarcity. Russians today spend an average of 380 liters of water per person per day. This is a huge number. For comparison, in Germany, each German has only 120 liters of water per day.

Study.

❖ The phenomenon under study: the quantitative share of water consumption per day per child in our school, the average value of the data.

❖ Purpose of the study: comparison of indicators obtained in Russia as a whole and indicators from a survey of students from school No. 5 in the city of Kotelnich.

❖ Research methods: questionnaire with elements of interviewing.

❖ Equipment: sheets with questionnaires, programs for processing graphic data.

❖ Expected result: indicators in the city of Kotelnich will be many times lower than the national indicators

❖ Description of the study.

After conducting a survey among school students, I was given the task of analyzing and transforming the data. It should be taken into account that the children did not take into account in their answers how much water was spent on laundry and washing dishes every day. Only for your needs.

❖ Research result.

It turned out that on average a Kotelnich student spends about 20 liters of water per day. A class of 20 people consumes approximately 214 liters of water per day. You can see a graphical representation of the data in the Appendix, graph No. 6.

❖ Conclusion on the work.

Water consumption indicators in the city of Kotelnich are 16 times higher!!! less than all-Russian indicators. Therefore, this is great! True, the error in the data obtained can be quite large.

❖ In this work, technical objects can be considered: questionnaires, Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Word programs.

❖ Natural objects: water.

Research work

"Study of the process of diffusion in water."

Study.

❖ Phenomenon under study: the process of diffusion in a liquid (water).

❖ Purpose of the study: to study one of the fundamental properties of water.

❖ Research methods: experiment, observation.

❖ Equipment: glass (200 ml), tea, sugar, water (boiled), water (cold), stopwatch.

❖ Expected result: The diffusion process in hot water will occur faster than in cold water; there is a certain dependence of the speed of the diffusion process on the presence of impurities in the water.

❖ Description of the study and its result.

I took a glass of hot and cold water and added a teaspoon of tea to each. I turned on the stopwatch. The water in a glass with hot water became completely colored after 35 seconds from the start of the countdown, while the diffusion process in a glass with cold water was not observed at all (2 minutes - no further experiment was carried out).

❖ Conclusion on the work.

The hypothesis I put forward turned out to be true, although the experiment was of an everyday nature.

❖ In this work, technical objects can be considered: a glass, a stopwatch.

❖ Natural objects: water, tea, sugar.

1. Work on this project was carried out in accordance with the plan:

1. An analysis of the physical, chemical and biological properties of water was carried out.

2. Experimental studies are laid down and analyzed.

3. The received data is systematized.

2. Obtained initial skills in working in a research project.

3. The possibilities for water research are not limited; work can be continued on any of these topics.

It cannot be said that everything planned at the beginning was realized. But what I can say for sure is that I do not regret choosing this topic at all. I hope to continue working in this direction in the future.

Snow, ice, hail, dew, frost fog... all this, well known to us from early childhood, is different state of aggregation of water.

We encounter different physical states of water every day in our lives; they are an important factor influencing all human life.

Conditions of water

In nature in natural conditions water can exist in three main aggregate states:

• Solid state - ice, snow, hail, frost...;
• Liquid – water, rain, fog, dew, rainbow, clouds...;
• Gaseous - steam...

Unique propertywater- the opportunity to be in natural conditions in three different basic aggregate states, provides our planet with a vital process - the hydrological cycle or circulationwaterin nature, which consists, briefly, of precipitation, evaporation and condensation. The water cycle in nature ensures its presence in almost all corners of our planet, and water, as we know, is the source of life.

Changes in the aggregative states of water

Transition processes water from one aggregate state to another are defined as follows:

• Boiling and vaporization - transition water from liquid state in steam;
• Condensation is the process of transition of vapor into liquid water condition;
• Crystallization - the transition of liquid into ice;
• Melting is the transition of ice into liquid;
• Sublimation is the transition of ice directly into a vapor state;
• Desublimation is the transition of steam directly into ice; an example is frost.

Transition boundary points water in states ice/water and water/steam were defined as 0 and 100 degrees Celsius respectively, assuming an atmospheric pressure of 760 mm Hg. Art. or 101,325 Pa. Everyone knows a simple sign from childhood: the temperature outside the window has dropped below zero, expect snow :)

Important to know

It is necessary to note such an important fact for humans - as atmospheric pressure decreases, the boiling point drops. This must be taken into account, for example, in high altitude conditions. Let us also note one more phenomenon that is useful for a person to know in everyday life - the volume of water in the solid state is greater than in the liquid state. This fact is illustrated by a well-known example - a bottle of water left in the cold will be torn apart by the ice formed in it.

Obviously, in their different states of aggregation Water has different basic physical properties such as fluidity, hardness, volatility.

It should be noted that steam determines such an important parameter for humans and other living organisms as “air humidity”. Air humidity directly depends on the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere; more steam, higher humidity. There are places on earth with both very high and low atmospheric humidity. The Indian city of Cherrapunji is considered one of the wettest places on the planet, and the Dry Valleys in Antarctica are one of the driest.

Rivers, swamps, lakes, glaciers, seas, oceans - all this is water (Fig. 50). Everything living and nonliving: any soils and rocks on our planet, all objects, bodies, organisms contain it. For example, in the human body water accounts for 60–80% of the mass. For many living organisms, water serves as a habitat. Life on Earth originated in water and is impossible without water. Seas and oceans accumulate heat by absorbing energy from sunlight.

Rice. 50. Water is the most extraordinary substance on Earth

You are already familiar with some of the properties of water: it is transparent, colorless, odorless and tasteless, has fluidity, and is found in three states - liquid, solid and gaseous.

Liquid water

In the summer, you repeatedly noted that the earth has already warmed up, but the water remains cold for a long time. When you enter the water, you feel that its temperature is not the same: the upper layers are much warmer than the lower ones. The mixing of the upper and lower layers produces wind, which causes disturbances on the surface - the deeper, the colder the water. Why does water in adjacent layers have different temperatures?

To answer this question, let us perform the following experiment.

Let's take a test tube and put a piece of ice in it. To prevent it from floating, you can press it down on top with a small piece of metal. Then pour water into the test tube. Holding the test tube with a clothespin and tilting it slightly, heat the part where there is no ice. At the same time, we observe what happens to the ice. It remains solid for a long time. Why doesn't the ice melt? The water around is boiling, but the ice is not melting.

Our experience allows us to conclude: water does not transfer heat very quickly.

The transfer of heat from a hotter part of the body to another, less heated part is called thermal conductivity. Since the thermal conductivity of water is not very high, the ice in our experiment remains in a solid state for a long time.

Water has another remarkable property: when heated by the sun's rays, it is able to retain the resulting heat for a long time. The water seems to accumulate it in itself and hold it. It heats up slowly and cools down slowly. In summer, water in coastal areas, heating up more slowly than land, cools the surrounding air, and in winter, the warm sea gradually cools, giving off heat to the air and softening the frost.

Hard water

When the temperature drops below 0 °C, water freezes and turns into a solid state - ice (Fig. 51).

Rice. 51. Ice is hard water in nature

We know that water has fluidity. It turns out that ice can “flow” under certain conditions. On Earth there are huge “rivers of ice” that slowly flow from high mountains. They are called glaciers.

Why do glaciers move? It turns out that under enormous weight (the thickness of some glaciers reaches 3–4 km), the ice at the surface of the Earth begins to melt and turns into liquid. The resulting water facilitates sliding and acts as a lubricant.

Gaseous water

We have already said that water can be in a gaseous state, i.e. in a state water vapor. Can you see water vapor?

A white cloud that forms at night and early in the morning in lowlands and over water bodies; white smoke that escapes from the spout of a kettle, or white visible puffs above a vessel where water is boiling - all this is not water vapor, but fog - tiny droplets of water formed in the air(Fig. 52).

Rice. 52. Fog - tiny droplets of water formed in the air when water vapor condenses

There is no difference between fog and cloud in the sky. Fogs are more common in autumn, when the air cools faster than the ground or water. When cool air comes into contact with warm air, fog is formed.

How is fog different from water vapor? Steam – it is a gas, transparent and invisible. It is impossible to see water vapor (water in a gaseous state), just as it is impossible to see air when water vapor condenses. But it can be proven that water vapor is contained in the air. For example, in the air of a room. If you hold a small mirror outside for 10–20 minutes (at a temperature of -5 °C or lower) and then bring it into a warm room, after a few minutes it will become covered with droplets of water. Water droplets are former water vapor that condensed from room air on the cold glass of the mirror. Water from a gaseous state - water vapor, which is contained in room air, from cooling upon contact with the cold glass of the mirror, passed into a liquid state.

The amount of water vapor that can be contained in the air depends on its temperature: the higher the air temperature, the more water vapor it contains.

Water in liquid, solid and gaseous states forms a shell on Earth - the hydrosphere.

1. What do you think will be more effective as a heating pad: 2 kg of sand at a temperature of +60 °C or 2 liters of water at the same temperature? Explain your answer.

2. Why does fog form at night or early in the morning?

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