On average for the year, depending on climatic conditions and latitude of the area, the flux of solar radiation onto the earth's surface ranges from 100 to 250 W/m2, reaching peak values ​​at noon with a clear sky, in almost any place (regardless of latitude), about 1,000 W/m2. In conditions middle zone In Russia, solar radiation “brings” to the surface of the earth energy equivalent to approximately 100-150 kg standard fuel per m2 per year.

Mathematical modeling of the simplest solar water heating installation, conducted at the Institute of High Temperatures Russian Academy sciences using modern software and data from a typical meteorological year showed that in real climatic conditions In central Russia, it is advisable to use seasonal flat solar water heaters operating from March to September. For an installation with a ratio of the solar collector area to the volume of the storage tank of 2 m 2 /100 l, the probability of daily heating of water during this period to a temperature of at least 37 ° C is 50-90%, to a temperature of at least 45 ° C - 30- 70%, up to a temperature of at least 55 ° C - 20-60%. The maximum probability values ​​apply to the summer months.

“Your Solar House” develops, assembles and supplies systems with both passive and active coolant circulation. You can find a description of these systems in the relevant sections of our website. Ordering and purchasing is carried out through.

The question is often asked: is it possible to use solar heating installations for heating in Russian conditions. A separate article has been written on this subject - “Solar heating support”

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Building solar heating for a private home with your own hands is not as difficult a task as it seems to the ignorant layman. This will require welding skills and materials available at any hardware store.

The relevance of creating solar heating for a private house with your own hands

Gaining complete autonomy is the dream of every owner who starts private construction. But is solar energy really capable of heating a residential building, especially if the device for storing it is assembled in the garage?

Depending on the region, the solar flux can range from 50 W/sq.m on a cloudy day to 1400 W/sq.m with a clear summer sky. With such indicators, even a primitive collector with low efficiency (45-50%) and an area of ​​15 sq.m. can produce about 7000-10000 kWh per year. And this is 3 tons of firewood saved for a solid fuel boiler!

• on average by square meter devices account for 900 W;
• to increase the water temperature, it is necessary to spend 1.16 W;
• taking into account also the heat loss of the collector, 1 sq.m can heat about 10 liters of water per hour to a temperature of 70 degrees;
• to provide 50 l hot water, needed by one person, you will need to spend 3.48 kW;
• Having checked the data of the hydrometeorological center on the power of solar radiation (W/sq.m) in the region, it is necessary to divide 3480 W by the resulting power of solar radiation - this will be the required area of ​​the solar collector to heat 50 liters of water.

As it becomes clear, effective independent heating It is quite problematic to implement it exclusively using solar energy. After all, during the gloomy winter season there is very little solar radiation, and it is impossible to place a collector with an area of ​​120 sq.m. on the site. it won't always work out.

So are solar collectors really non-functional? Don't discount them in advance. So, with the help of such a storage device you can do without a boiler in the summer - the power will be enough to provide for your family hot water. In winter, it will be possible to reduce energy costs if you supply already heated water from the solar collector to an electric boiler.
In addition, the solar collector will be an excellent assistant to the heat pump in a house with low-temperature heating (warm floors).

So, in winter the heated coolant will be used in warm floors, and in summer, excess heat can be sent to the geothermal circuit. This will reduce the power of the heat pump.
After all, geothermal heat is not renewed, so over time an ever-increasing “cold bag” forms in the soil. For example, in a conventional geothermal circuit at the beginning heating season the temperature is +5 degrees, and at the end -2C. When heated, the initial temperature rises to +15 C, and by the end of the heating season it does not fall below +2 C.

Construction of a homemade solar collector

For a master who is confident in his abilities, assembling a heat collector will not be difficult. You can start with small device to provide hot water at the dacha, and if the experiment is successful, move on to creating a full-fledged solar station.

Flat-plate solar collector made of metal pipes

The simplest collector to make is a flat one. For its device you will need:

• welding machine;
• stainless steel or copper pipes;
• steel sheet;
• tempered glass or polycarbonate;
• wooden boards for the frame;
• non-flammable insulation that can withstand metal heated to 200 degrees;
• matte black paint, resistant to high temperatures.

Assembly of the solar collector is quite simple:

1. The pipes are welded to a steel sheet - it acts as an adsorber of solar energy, so the fit of the pipes should be as tight as possible. Everything is painted matte black.



2. A frame is placed on the sheet with pipes so that the pipes are facing inside. Holes are drilled for the inlet and outlet of the pipes. Insulation is being installed. If a hygroscopic material is used, you need to take care of waterproofing - after all, once wet, the insulation will no longer protect the pipes from cooling.





3. The insulation is fixed with an OSB sheet, all joints are filled with sealant.
4. On the adsorber side, transparent glass or polycarbonate with a small air gap is placed. It serves to prevent the steel sheet from cooling.
5. You can fix the glass using wooden window beads, after applying sealant. It will prevent cold air from entering and protect the glass from shrinking the frame when heating and cooling.

For the collector to function fully, you will need a storage tank. It can be made from plastic barrel, insulated from the outside, in which a heat exchanger connected to the solar collector is laid in a spiral. The heated water inlet should be located at the top, and the cold water outlet at the bottom.

It is important to place the tank and manifold correctly. To ensure natural circulation of water, the tank must be located above the collector, and the pipes must have a constant slope.

Solar heater made from scrap materials

If with welding machine It was not possible to establish a friendship, you can make a simple solar heater from what is at hand. For example, from tin cans. To do this, holes are made in the bottom, the cans themselves are fastened to each other with sealant, and they are seated on it at the junction with PVC pipes. They are painted black and placed in a frame under glass in the same way as ordinary pipes.

Solar house facade

Why not decorate your house with something useful instead of ordinary siding? For example, by making a solar heater on the entire wall on the south side.

This solution will allow optimizing heating costs in two directions at once - reducing energy costs and significantly reducing heat loss due to additional insulation facade.

The device is incredibly simple and does not require special tools:

• a painted galvanized sheet is laid on the insulation;
• a stainless corrugated pipe, also painted black, is laid on top;
• everything is covered with polycarbonate sheets and fixed with aluminum corners.

If this method seems complicated, the video shows a version made from tin, polypropylene pipes and films. Much easier!

Doctor of Technical Sciences B.I. Kazanjan
Moscow Energy Institute
(technical university), Russia
Energy magazine, No. 12, 2005.

1. Introduction.

The main reasons that prompted humanity to engage in large-scale industrial development of renewable energy sources are:
-climate changes caused by an increase in CO2 content in the atmosphere;
-strong dependence of many developed countries, especially European ones, on fuel imports;
-limited reserves of organic fuel on Earth.
The recent signing of the Kyoto Protocol by most developed countries of the world has put on the agenda the accelerated development of technologies that help reduce CO2 emissions in environment. The impetus for the development of these technologies is not only the awareness of the threat of climate change and the associated economic losses, but also the fact that greenhouse gas emission quotas have become a commodity with very real value. One of the technologies that can reduce fossil fuel consumption and reduce CO2 emissions is the production of low-grade heat for hot water supply systems, heating, air conditioning, technological and other needs using solar energy. Currently, more than 40% of the primary energy consumed by humanity falls on precisely these needs, and it is in this sector that solar energy technologies are the most mature and economically acceptable for widespread practical use. For many countries, the use of solar heating systems is also a way to reduce the economy's dependence on imported fossil fuels. This task is especially relevant for the countries of the European Union, whose economy is already 50% dependent on the import of fossil energy resources, and by 2020 this dependence may increase to 70%, which is a threat to the economic independence of this region

2.Scale of use of solar heating systems

About the scale modern use solar energy for heat supply needs is evidenced by the following statistics.
The total area of ​​solar collectors installed in the EU countries by the end of 2004 reached 13960000 m2, and in the world exceeded 150000000 m2. The annual increase in the area of ​​solar collectors in Europe averages 12%, and in some countries it reaches a level of 20-30% or more. In terms of the number of collectors per thousand inhabitants, the world leader is Cyprus, where 90% of houses are equipped with solar installations (there are 615.7 m2 of solar collectors per thousand inhabitants), followed by Israel, Greece and Austria. The absolute leader in the area of ​​installed collectors in Europe is Germany - 47%, followed by Greece - 14%, Austria - 12%, Spain - 6%, Italy - 4%, France - 3%. European countries are the undisputed leaders in the development of new systems technologies solar heating, however, they are much inferior to China in the volume of commissioning of new solar installations. Statistical data on the increase in the number of solar collectors commissioned in the world at the end of 2004 give the following distribution: China - 78%, Europe - 9%, Turkey and Israel - 8%, other countries - 5%.
According to the expert assessment of ESTIF (European Solar Thermal Industry Federation), the technical and economic potential for the use of solar collectors in heat supply systems in EU countries alone is more than 1.4 billion m2 capable of producing more than 680,000 GWh of thermal energy per year. Plans for the near future include the installation of 100,000,000 m2 of collectors in this region by 2010.

3. The solar collector is a key element of the solar heating system

The solar collector is the main component of any solar heating system. This is where solar energy is converted into heat. The efficiency of the entire solar heating system and its economic indicators depend on its technical excellence and cost.
There are mainly two types of solar collectors used in heat supply systems: flat and vacuum.

The flat solar collector consists of a housing, a transparent fence, an absorber and thermal insulation (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Typical design of a flat plate solar collector

The body is the main supporting structure, the transparent fence allows solar radiation inside the collector, protects the absorber from the influence of the external environment and reduces heat losses from the front side of the collector. The absorber absorbs solar radiation and transfers heat to the coolant through tubes connected to its heat-receiving surface. Thermal insulation reduces heat losses from the rear and side surfaces of the collector.
The heat-receiving surface of the absorber has a selective coating that has a high absorption coefficient in the visible and near-infrared regions of the solar spectrum and a low emissivity in the spectral region corresponding to the operating temperatures of the collector. The best modern collectors have an absorption coefficient in the range of 94-95%, an emissivity coefficient of 3-8%, and an efficiency in the range of operating temperatures typical for heating systems exceeds 50%. Non-selective black absorber coating is rarely used in modern collectors due to high radiation losses . Figure 2 shows examples of modern flat-plate collectors.

In vacuum collectors (Figure 3), each absorber element is placed in a separate glass tube, inside which a vacuum is created, due to which heat loss due to convection and thermal conductivity of air is almost completely suppressed. Selective coating on the surface of the absorber allows minimizing radiation losses. As a result, the efficiency of a vacuum collector is significantly higher than that of a flat collector, but its cost is much higher.

A b

Fig 2 Flat solar collectors

a) Wagner company, b) Feron company

A b

Fig 3 Vacuum manifold from Wissman
A) general view, b) wiring diagram

3. Thermal diagrams of solar heating systems

In world practice, small solar heating systems are the most widespread. Typically, such systems include solar collectors total area 2-8m2, battery tank, capacity which is determined by the area of ​​the collectors used, circulation pump or pumps (depending on the type of thermal circuit) and others auxiliary equipment. IN small systems, the coolant circulation between the collector and the storage tank can be carried out without a pump, due to natural convection (thermosyphon principle). In this case, the storage tank should be located above the collector. The simplest type of such installations is a collector paired with an accumulator tank located at the upper end of the collector (Fig. 4). Systems of this type are usually used for hot water supply in small single-family cottage-type houses.

Fig.4 Thermosyphon solar heating system.

In Fig. Figure 5 shows an example of a larger active system in which the accumulator tank is located below the collectors and the coolant is circulated using a pump. Such systems are used for both hot water supply and heating. As a rule, in active systems involved in covering part of the heating load, a backup heat source using electricity or gas is provided .

Fig 5 Thermal diagram active solar hot water and heating system

A relatively new phenomenon in the practice of using solar heating are large systems capable of meeting the needs of hot water supply and heating apartment buildings or entire residential areas. Such systems use either daily or seasonal heat storage.
Daily accumulation assumes the ability to operate the system using accumulated heat for several days, seasonal - for several months.
For seasonal heat accumulation, large underground reservoirs filled with water are used, into which all excess heat received from collectors during the summer is discharged. Another option for seasonal accumulation is heating the soil using wells with pipes through which hot water coming from the collectors circulates.

Table 1 shows the main parameters of large solar systems with daily and seasonal heat storage in comparison with a small solar system for a single-family home.

System type
Collectors area per person m2/person
Volume thermal battery, l/m2col
Share of hot water supply load covered by solar energy %
Share total load covered by solar energy
Cost of heat obtained from solar energy for German conditions Euro/kWh

Ecology of consumption. Estate: Most of the year we are forced to spend money on heating our houses. In such a situation, any help will be helpful. Solar energy is ideal for these purposes: absolutely environmentally friendly and free.

Most of the year we are forced to spend money on heating our homes. In such a situation, any help will be helpful. Solar energy is ideal for these purposes: absolutely environmentally friendly and free. Modern technologies allow solar heating of a private home not only in the southern regions, but also in the middle zone.

What modern technologies can offer

On average, 1 m2 of the earth's surface receives 161 W of solar energy per hour. Of course, at the equator this figure will be many times higher than in the Arctic. In addition, the density of solar radiation depends on the time of year. In the Moscow region, the intensity of solar radiation in December-January differs from May-July by more than five times. However modern systems so effective that they can work almost anywhere on earth.

The problem of using solar radiation energy with maximum efficiency is solved in two ways: direct heating in thermal collectors and solar photovoltaic batteries.

Solar panels first convert energy sun rays into electricity, then transmitted through a special system to consumers, for example an electric boiler.

Thermal collectors, when heated by the sun's rays, heat the coolant of heating and hot water supply systems.

Thermal collectors come in several types, including open and closed systems, flat and spherical designs, hemispherical collectors, concentrators and many other options.

The thermal energy obtained from solar collectors is used to heat hot water or heating fluid.

Although there has been clear progress in developing solutions for harvesting, storing and using solar energy, there are advantages and disadvantages.

Efficiency solar heating in our latitudes is quite low, which is explained by the insufficient amount sunny days for regular operation of the system

Pros and cons of using solar energy

The most obvious advantage of using solar energy is its universal availability. In fact, even in the gloomiest and cloudiest weather, solar energy can be collected and used.

The second advantage is zero emissions. In fact, it is the most environmentally friendly and natural look energy. Solar panels and collectors do not produce noise. In most cases, they are installed on the roofs of buildings without occupying usable area suburban area.

The disadvantages associated with using solar energy are the variability of illumination. At night there is nothing to collect, the situation is aggravated by the fact that the peak of the heating season occurs during the shortest daylight hours of the year.

A significant disadvantage of heating based on the use of solar collectors is the lack of ability to accumulate thermal energy. Only the expansion tank is included in the circuit

It is necessary to monitor the optical cleanliness of the panels; slight contamination sharply reduces the efficiency.

In addition, it cannot be said that operating a solar energy system is completely free; there are constant costs for equipment depreciation, operation of the circulation pump and control electronics.

Open solar collectors

An open solar collector is a system of tubes, unprotected from external influences, through which coolant heated directly by the sun circulates. Water, gas, air, and antifreeze are used as coolants. The tubes are either fixed to the supporting panel in the form of a coil, or connected in parallel rows to the outlet pipe.

Solar collectors open type are not able to cope with the heating of a private home. Due to the lack of insulation, the coolant cools quickly. They are used in summer time mainly for heating water in showers or swimming pools

Open collectors usually do not have any insulation. The design is very simple, therefore it has a low cost and is often made independently.

Due to the lack of insulation, they practically do not store the energy received from the sun and are characterized by low efficiency. They are mainly used in summer period for heating water in swimming pools or summer showers. Installed in sunny and warm regions, with small differences in temperature of the ambient air and heated water. They work well only in sunny, windless weather.

The simplest solar collector with a heat sink made from a coil of polymer pipes will provide the supply of heated water to the dacha for irrigation and domestic needs

Tubular solar collectors

Tubular solar collectors are assembled from individual tubes through which water, gas or steam flows. This is one of the types of open solar systems. However, the coolant is already much better protected from external negativity. Especially in vacuum installations, designed on the principle of thermoses.

Each tube is connected to the system separately, parallel to each other. If one tube fails, it is easy to replace it with a new one. The entire structure can be assembled directly on the roof of the building, which greatly simplifies installation.

The tubular collector has a modular structure. The main element is a vacuum tube; the number of tubes varies from 18 to 30, which allows you to accurately select the power of the system

A significant advantage of tubular solar collectors is the cylindrical shape of the main elements, thanks to which solar radiation is captured all day long without the use of expensive systems for tracking the movement of the luminary.

A special multilayer coating creates a kind of optical trap for sunlight. The diagram partially shows the outer wall of the vacuum flask reflecting rays onto the walls of the inner flask

Based on the design of the tubes, feather and coaxial solar collectors are distinguished.

The coaxial tube is a Diaur vessel or a familiar thermos. Made from two flasks between which air is evacuated. On inner surface The inner flask is coated with a highly selective coating that effectively absorbs solar energy.

Thermal energy from the internal selective layer is transferred to a heat pipe or internal heat exchanger made of aluminum plates. At this stage, unwanted heat loss occurs.

The feather tube is a glass cylinder with a feather absorber inserted inside.

For good thermal insulation, the air has been evacuated from the tube. Heat transfer from the absorber occurs without loss, so the efficiency of feather tubes is higher.

According to the method of heat transfer, there are two systems: direct-flow and with a heat pipe.

Thermal tube is a sealed container with an easily evaporating liquid.

Inside the heat tube there is an easily evaporating liquid that receives heat from the inner wall of the flask or from the feather absorber. Under the influence of temperature, the liquid boils and rises in the form of steam. After the heat is transferred to the heating or hot water supply coolant, the steam condenses into liquid and flows down.

Water is often used as an easily evaporating liquid at low pressure.

A once-through system uses a U-shaped tube through which water or heating fluid circulates.

One half of the U-shaped tube is intended for cold coolant, the second removes the heated one. When heated, the coolant expands and enters the storage tank, providing natural circulation. As with thermotube systems, minimum angle the slope should be at least 20⁰.

Direct-flow systems are more efficient because they immediately heat the coolant.

If solar collector systems are planned for use all year round, then special antifreeze is pumped into them.

Pros and cons of tubular collectors

The use of tubular solar collectors has a number of advantages and disadvantages. The design of a tubular solar collector consists of identical elements that are relatively easy to replace.

Advantages:

• low heat loss;
• ability to work at temperatures down to -30⁰С;
• efficient performance throughout daylight hours;
• good performance in areas with temperate and cold climates;
• low windage, justified by the ability of tubular systems to pass air masses through themselves;
• production possibility high temperature coolant.

Structurally tubular design has a limited aperture surface. It has the following disadvantages:

• not capable of self-cleaning from snow, ice, frost;
• high cost.

Despite the initial high cost, tubular collectors pay for themselves faster. They have a long service life.

Flat closed solar collectors

A flat-plate collector consists of an aluminum frame, a special absorbent layer - an absorber, a transparent coating, a pipeline and insulation.

Blackened sheet copper is used as an absorber, which has ideal thermal conductivity for creating solar systems. When solar energy is absorbed by an absorber, the solar energy it receives is transferred to a coolant circulating through a tube system adjacent to the absorber.

WITH outside closed panel protected by a transparent coating. It is made of shockproof tempered glass with a transmission band of 0.4-1.8 microns. This range accounts for the maximum solar radiation. Shockproof glass provides good protection against hail. On the back side the entire panel is reliably insulated.

Flat-plate solar collectors are characterized by maximum performance and simple design. Their efficiency is increased due to the use of an absorber. They are able to capture diffuse and direct solar radiation

The list of advantages of closed flat panels includes:

• simplicity of design;
• good performance in regions with warm climates;
• the ability to install at any angle with devices for changing the angle of inclination;
• the ability to self-clean from snow and frost;
• low price.

Flat-plate solar collectors are especially advantageous if their use is planned at the design stage. Service life quality products is 50 years.

The disadvantages include:

• high heat loss;
• heavy weight;
• high windage when the panels are positioned at an angle to the horizontal;
• performance limitations when temperature changes exceed 40°C.

The scope of application of closed collectors is much wider than that of open-type solar systems. In summer they are able to fully satisfy the need for hot water. On cool days, when utilities do not include them in the heating period, they can work instead of gas and electric heaters.

Comparison of solar collector characteristics

The most important indicator of a solar collector is efficiency. The useful performance of solar collectors of different designs depends on the temperature difference. At the same time, flat collectors are much cheaper than tubular ones.

Efficiency values ​​depend on the manufacturing quality of the solar collector. The purpose of the graph is to show the effectiveness of using different systems depending on the temperature difference

When choosing a solar collector, you should pay attention to a number of parameters showing the efficiency and power of the device.

There are several important characteristics for solar collectors:

• adsorption coefficient - shows the ratio of absorbed energy to total;
• emission coefficient - shows the ratio of transmitted energy to absorbed energy;
• total and aperture area;
• Efficiency

The aperture area is working area solar collector. A flat-plate collector has a maximum aperture area. The aperture area is equal to the absorber area.

Methods for connecting to the heating system

Since solar-powered devices cannot provide a stable, round-the-clock energy supply, a system that is resilient to these shortcomings is needed.

For central Russia, solar devices cannot guarantee a stable flow of energy, so they are used as additional system. Integration into an existing heating and hot water system is different for a solar collector and a solar battery.

Thermal collector connection diagram

Depending on the purpose of use thermal collector Different connection systems are used. There may be several options:

1. Summer option for hot water supply
2. Winter option for heating and hot water supply

The summer option is the simplest and can even be done without a circulation pump, using the natural circulation of water.

The water is heated in the solar collector and, due to thermal expansion, enters the storage tank or boiler. In this case, natural circulation occurs: cold water is sucked out of the tank instead of hot water.

In winter when negative temperatures Direct water heating is not possible. Special antifreeze circulates through a closed circuit, ensuring heat transfer from the collector to the heat exchanger in the tank

Like any system based on natural circulation, it does not work very efficiently, requiring compliance with the necessary slopes. In addition, the storage tank must be higher than the solar collector.

In order for the water to remain hot for as long as possible, the tank must be thoroughly insulated.

If you really want to achieve the maximum efficient work solar collector, the connection diagram will become more complicated.

Non-freezing coolant circulates through the solar collector system. Forced circulation is provided by a pump controlled by a controller.

The controller controls the operation of the circulation pump based on the readings of at least two temperature sensors. The first sensor measures the temperature in storage tank, the second - on the hot coolant supply pipe of the solar collector. As soon as the temperature in the tank exceeds the temperature of the coolant, the controller in the collector turns off the circulation pump, stopping the circulation of coolant through the system.

In turn, when the temperature in the storage tank drops below the set value, the heating boiler turns on.

Solar battery connection diagram

It would be tempting to apply a similar scheme for connecting a solar battery to the electrical grid, as is implemented in the case of a solar collector, accumulating the energy received during the day. Unfortunately, for the power supply system of a private home, it is very expensive to create a battery pack of sufficient capacity. Therefore, the connection diagram looks like this.

When the power of the electric current from the solar battery decreases, the AVR unit ( automatic switching on reserve) ensures the connection of consumers to the general power grid

WITH solar panels the charge is supplied to the charge controller, which performs several functions: it ensures constant recharging of the batteries and stabilizes the voltage. Next electric current goes to the inverter where the conversion takes place DC 12V or 24V AC single-phase current 220V.

Alas, our electrical networks are not suitable for receiving energy; they can only work in one direction from source to consumer. For this reason, you will not be able to sell the extracted electricity or at least make the meter spin in the opposite direction.

The use of solar panels is advantageous in that they provide a more versatile type of energy, but at the same time they cannot compare in efficiency with solar collectors. However, the latter do not have the ability to store energy, unlike solar photovoltaic batteries.

How to calculate the required collector power

When calculating the required power of a solar collector, calculations are often mistakenly made based on the incoming solar energy in the coldest months of the year.

The fact is that in the remaining months of the year the entire system will constantly overheat. In summer, the temperature of the coolant at the outlet of the solar collector can reach 200°C when heating steam or gas, 120°C for antifreeze, 150°C for water. If the coolant boils, it will partially evaporate. As a result, it will have to be replaced.

• provision of hot water supply no more than 70%;
• security heating system no more than 30%.

Rest required heat should produce a standard heating equipment. Nevertheless, with such indicators, an average of about 40% is saved per year on heating and hot water supply.

The power generated by a single tube of a vacuum system depends on geographic location. The rate of solar energy falling per 1 m2 of land per year is called insolation. Knowing the length and diameter of the tube, you can calculate the aperture - the effective absorption area. It remains to apply the absorption and emission coefficients to calculate the power of one tube per year.

Calculation example:

The standard tube length is 1800 mm, the effective length is 1600 mm. Diameter 58 mm. Aperture is the shaded area created by the tube. Thus, the area of ​​the shadow rectangle will be:

S = 1.6 * 0.058 = 0.0928m2

The efficiency of the middle tube is 80%, solar insolation for Moscow is about 1170 kWh/m2 per year. Thus, one tube will produce per year:

W = 0.0928 * 1170 * 0.8 = 86.86 kWh

It should be noted that this is a very rough estimate. The amount of energy generated depends on the orientation of the installation, angle, average annual temperature, etc. published

Selective coatings

Based on the type of mechanism responsible for the selectivity of optical properties, four groups of selective coatings are distinguished:

1) own;

2) two-layer, in which top layer has a large absorption coefficient in the visible region and a small one in the IR region, and bottom layer– high reflectivity in the IR region;

3) with a microrelief that provides the required effect;

4) interference.

A small number of known materials, for example W, Cu 2 S, HfC, have their own selectivity of optical properties.

Interference selective surfaces are formed by several alternating layers of metal and dielectric, in which short-wave radiation is suppressed due to interference, and long-wave radiation is freely reflected.

Classification and main elements of solar systems

Solar heating systems are systems that use solar radiation energy as a heat source. Their characteristic difference from other systems is low temperature heating is the use of a special element - a solar receiver, designed to capture solar radiation and convert it into thermal energy.

According to the method of using solar radiation, solar low-temperature heating systems are divided into passive and active.

Passive solar heating systems are called solar heating systems in which the building itself or its individual fences (collector building, collector wall, roof collector, etc.) serve as an element that receives solar radiation and converts it into heat (Fig. 4.1.1 )).

Active are called solar low-temperature heating systems in which the solar receiver is an independent separate device not related to the building. Active solar systems can be subdivided:

By purpose (hot water supply, heating, combined systems for heat and cold supply purposes);

According to the type of coolant used (liquid - water, antifreeze and air);

By duration of work (year-round, seasonal);

According to the technical solution of the circuits (one-, two-, multi-circuit).

Air is a widely used coolant that does not freeze over the entire range of operating parameters. When using it as a coolant, it is possible to combine heating systems with a ventilation system.

Seasonal solar hot water supply systems are usually single-circuit and operate during periods with positive outdoor temperatures. They can have an additional heat source or do without it, depending on the purpose of the serviced object and operating conditions.

Solar heating systems for buildings are usually double-circuit or, most often, multi-circuit, and different coolants can be used for different circuits (for example, in the solar circuit - aqueous solutions of non-freezing liquids, in intermediate circuits - water, and in the consumer circuit - air).

Combined year-round solar systems for the purposes of heat and cold supply to buildings are multi-circuit and include an additional heat source in the form of a traditional heat generator running on fossil fuels or a heat transformer.

The main elements of an active solar system are a solar receiver, a heat accumulator, an additional heat source or transformer (heat pump), and its consumer (heating and hot water supply systems for buildings). The selection and arrangement of elements in each specific case is determined climatic factors, purpose of the object, heat consumption mode, economic indicators.